Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

0.5 N, in a vertically downward direction, in all cases  

Acceleration due to gravity, irrespective of the direction of motion of an object, always acts downward. The gravitational force is the only force that acts on the pebble in all three cases. Its magnitude is given by Newton's second law of motion as:

F = m x a  

Where, 

 F = Net force  

m= Mass of the pebble = 0.05 kg  

a = g = 10 m/s2 

 ∴F = 0.05 x 10 = 0.5 N

The net force on the pebble in all three cases is 0.5 N and this force acts in the downward direction.  

If the pebble is thrown at an angle of 45° with the horizontal, it will have both the horizontal and vertical components of velocity. At the highest point, only the vertical component of velocity becomes zero. However, the pebble will have the horizontal component of velocity throughout its motion. This component of velocity produces no effect on the net force acting on the pebble.

 The only force in each case is the force of gravity, (neglecting effects of air) equal to 0.5N vertically downward. The answers do not change, even if the motiodn of the pebble is not along the vertical. The pebble is not at rest at the highest point. It has a constant horizontal component of velocity throughout its motion.

Given:

Total number of toys = 100

Profit earned by selling 60% toys = 20%

Profit earned by selling 40% toys = 10%

Overall profit percent = 12.5% (uniform)

Difference between initial S.P and final S.P = 70

Formula used:

Selling price = (100 ± a %)/100 × C.P

Where + a% = percent profit, and – a% = percent loss

Concept used:

Profit and loss is always calculated on C.P

Calculation:

Let Total C.P of 100 toys be X.

C.P of 60 toys = (X/100) × 60 = 3X/5

C.P of 40 toys = (X/100) × 40 = 2X/5

Profit percent, while selling 60 toys = 20%

S.P = (100 + 20)/100 × 3X/5

⇒ 120/100 × 3X/5

⇒ 18X/25

Similarly, profit percent, while selling 40 toys = 10%

S.P = (100 + 10)/100 × 2X/5

⇒ 11X/25

Total S.P of 100 toys = 18X/25 + 11X/25 = 29X/25

Now, toys are sold at uniform profit at 12.5%

Total S.P of toys = (100 + 12.5)/100 × X = 9X/8

Difference between initial and final S.P = 70

⇒ 18X/25 – 9X/8 = 70

⇒ 7X/200 = 70

⇒ X = 2000

Total C.P of 100 toys = X = 2000

C.P of each toy = 2000/100 = 20

Said by the poet about the female Saras Crane. A male Saras Crane was shot down by a cruel and callous hunter early in the morning. The dead male Saras Crane was picked up callously by the hunter by its neck and stuffed into a coarse washing bag like dirty laundry. Seeing this the female Saras crane flew up crying into the air and circled the sky. She went insane with sorrow at his disgraceful end. But the hunter insenstively ignored her and carried her dead partner leaving her in deep sorrow.

Correct option is A) over

Correct option is C) He is her son

Correct option is B) behind

Correct option is B) behind

Correct option is C) He is her father

Correct option is C) in front of

Correct option is D) behind

Correct option is C) are in

Correct option is A) behind

Concept:

\(\rm \int\frac{1}{x^2+a^2}dx=\frac{1}{a}tan^{-1}\frac{x}{a}+C\)

Calculation:​

\(\rm \int\frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}dy\)

Substitute y² = x in the above integrand

⇒ \(\rm \frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}=\frac{x}{(x+2)(x+3)}\)

The integrand is a proper rational fraction. So, by using the form of partial fraction, we write

⇒\(\rm \frac{x}{(x+2)(x+3)}=\frac{A}{x+2}+\frac{B}{x+3}\)

⇒ x = (A + B)x+ 3A +2B

By comparing coefficient of x and constant terms on both sides, we get A + B = 1 and  3A + 2B = 0

By solving these equation, we get  A = -2  and  B = 3

⇒\(\rm \frac{x}{(x+2)(x+3)}=\frac{-2}{x+2}+\frac{3}{x+3}\) 

Now put x = y² in the above equation

⇒\(\rm \frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}=\frac{-2}{y^2+2}+\frac{3}{y^2+3}\)

⇒ \(\rm \int \frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}dy=\int\frac{-2}{y^2+2}dy+\int\frac{3}{y^2+3}dy\)

⇒ \(\rm \int \frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}dy= \frac{-2}{\sqrt{2}}tan^{-1}\frac{y}{\sqrt{2}}+\frac{3}{\sqrt{3}}tan^{-1}\frac{y}{\sqrt{3}}+C\)   

⇒ \(\rm \int \frac{y^2}{(y^2+2)(y^2+3)}dy= {-\sqrt{2}}tan^{-1}\frac{y}{\sqrt{2}}+{\sqrt{3}}tan^{-1}\frac{y}{\sqrt{3}}+C\)

Concept:         

Integration formulas:

• \(\int_a^b {f(x)dx = F(b) - F(a)} \)
• \(\int_a^b {\frac{1}{{1 + {x^2}}}dx = } {\tan ^{ - 1}}x\)

Calculation:      

Let us suppose, e^x - 1 = t²

Now by differentiating the above equation w.r.t x we get

⇒ e^x dx = 2t dt

\(\Rightarrow dx = \frac{{2t\ dt}}{{{t^2} + 1}}\)

Put the value of e^x-1 and dx in given integration

\(\int {\frac{1}{{\sqrt {{t^2}} }}} \times \frac{{2tdt}}{{{t^2} + 1}}\)

\(\int 2 \frac{{dt}}{{{t^2} + 1}} ⇒ 2{\tan ^{ - 1}}t\)

Now put the value of t and limit in the above integrand

\([2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} ]_{\log 2}^x = \frac{\pi }{6}\)

\(2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} - 2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^{\log 2}} - 1} = \frac{\pi }{6}\)

\(2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} - 2{\tan ^{ - 1}}1 = \frac{\pi }{6}\)

\(2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} - \frac{\pi }{2} = \frac{\pi }{6}\)

\(2{\tan ^{ - 1}}\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} = \frac{{2\pi }}{3}\)

\(\sqrt {{e^x} - 1} = \tan \frac{\pi }{3} = \sqrt 3 \)

\({e^x} - 1 = 3 ⇒ {e^x} = 4 ⇒ x = 2\log 2\)

Hence, option B is the correct answer.

Explanation:

\(f(x)=\int^2_0\int^x_0y\ dydx\)

\(f(x)= \mathop \smallint \limits_0^2 \left[ { \frac{{{y^2}}}{2}} \right]_0^{{x}}dx\)

\(f(x)=\int^2_0[\frac{x^2}{2}-0]\ dx\)

\(f(x)=\frac{1}{2}\int^2_0{x^2}\ dx\)

\(f(x)= \frac{1}{2} \left[ { \frac{{{x^3}}}{3}} \right]_0^{{2}}\)

\(f(x)=\frac{1}{2}(\frac{2^3}{3}-0)\)

\(f(x) = \frac{4}{3}\)

Concept:

cos2x = 2cos²x - 1

sin2x = 2sin x cos x

Calculation:

Here, y = cos2 x2

Let, x² = t 

Differentiating with respect to x, we get

⇒2xdx = dt 

⇒ dt/dx = 2x ....(1)

y = cos²t

=\(\rm \frac{\cos2t+1}{2}=\frac{\cos2t}{2}+\frac{1}{2}\)

\(\rm \frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{1}{2}\frac{d}{dt}(\cos2t)\frac{dt}{dx}+0\\ = \frac{1}{2}(-2\sin2t)\frac{dt}{dx}\cdots (from \ (1))\)

= - sin2x² × 2x

= -4x cos x2 sin x2

Hence, option (2) is correct. 

Concept:

Following steps to finding maxima and minima using derivatives.

1. Find the derivative of the function.

2. Set the derivative equal to 0 and solve. This gives the values of the maximum and minimum points.

3. Now we have to find the second derivative.

I. f``(x) is less than 0 then the given function is said to be maxima

II. If f``(x) Is greater than 0 then the function is said to be minima

    sin x = cos x when x = π/4

Short trick:

The maximum value of the trigonometric function

\({\bf{a}}\;{\bf{sin}}\;{\bf{x}}\; + \;{\bf{b}}\;{\bf{cos}}\;{\bf{x}}\) is \(\sqrt {{{\bf{a}}^2} + {{\bf{b}}^2}} \)

Calculation:​

Given:

y = 5 sin² x + 7 cos² x – 4 sin x cos x

y = (2 sin x – cos x)² + sin² x + 6 cos² x

y = (2 sin x – cos x)² + (sin² x + cos² x) + 5 cos² x

\(y_{max}=[\sqrt{(2)^2+(1)^2 )}]+1+5\)

=6+√5 

Given:

1st selling at 5% loss

2nd cost price at 10% loss

profit 20%

The difference between two SP's is 170

Calculation:

Let the CP = 100

⇒ 1st SP at 5% loss

⇒ SP₍₁₎ = 95      ------(1)

Now the CP is reduced by 10%

⇒ 2nd CP = 90

He had gain 20% profit on this CP

⇒ SP = 120/100 × 90

⇒ SP = 6/5 × 90

⇒ SP₍₂₎ = 108      ------(2)

Now difference between two SP's is 170

∴ SP₍₂₎-SP₍₁₎ -- 170

⇒ 108 - 95 -- 170

⇒  13-- 170

∴ 1 -- 170/13

We have CP = 100

∴ For CP

170/13 × 100

⇒ CP = 1307.98

⇒ CP = 1308

Calculation:

Let be assume cost price of mangos, custard apples, and watermelon is p, q, and r respectively

⇒ 2p = 6q, 3p = r

⇒ 2r = 18, r = 9

⇒ p = r/3 = 9/3 = 3

⇒ q = 2p/6 = (2 × 3)/6 = 1

⇒ Now, 4p + 10q = 4 × 3 + 10 × 1 = 12 + 10 = 22

∴ The required result will be 22 rupees.

b. cosω₁t + cosω₂t 

In Hilbert transform, the signal gets shifted by 900. 

So the signal sinω₁t+ sinω₂t gets shifted by 900 

sinω₁(t+900)+ sinω₂(t+900) 

= cosω₁t+ cosω₂t

c. 13.55 

As the signal passes through various stages of an amplifier, the output has the original signal and some noise that gets amplified at different stages of amplifiers. So the final noise figure of the cascaded amplifier is obtained by

F_N = F₁ + (F₂ – 1)/ G₁ + (F₃ – 1)/ G₁G₂+……+(F_N– 1)/ G₁G₂G₃ G_N 

F₁, F₂, F₃ .. F_N, G₁,G₂, G₃…. G_N are the noise figures and the gains respectively of the amplifiers at different stages. 

F₁ = 12, F₂ = 12, F₃ = 12 

G₁ = 8, G₂ = 8, G₃ = 8 

F_N = 12 + (12- 1)/ 8+ (12- 1)/ 8 * 8 

= 12 + 11/8 + 11/64 

= 13.55

Society & Culture are Two aspects of the same Phenomenon.

 The term 'Sociology' was Coined  in 1838

73^rd Amendment Panchayati Raj System was given a constitutional Status.

Accodring to Iravati Karve, joint family is related with Three Generation

The Election Commission conduct election in India.

In India, elections are conducted by an independent and very powerful ,Election Commission. The procedure for the appointment of the Chief Election Commissioner is

(i) The President of India appoints the Chief Election Commissioner.

(ii) Once appointed, the Chief Election Commissioner is - not answerable to the President or die government.

(iii) The Chief Election Commissioner has tenure of six years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.

(iv) The status, salary and perks of the Chief Election Commissioner are equivalent to Judges of the Supreme Court of India.

(v) The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from office only through impeachment by the Parliament. So, it is virtually impossible to remove him.

(a) Parliament has no say in the preparation of the Budget

President does a Judge of the Supreme Court address his resignation if he wants to leave office before his term is complete.

Single Transferable Vote is the basic concept of Proportional Representation. We follow this system in the Rajya Sabha elections. Accordingly, each State is given a quota to the Rajya Sabha. For a candidate to win, he should get the proportional share of the votes. The equation tp decide the quota is as follows:

\((\frac{The\, number, of\, total\, vovtes\, Polled}{The\, number\, of\,total\, candidates\, to\, be\, elected\,+1}+1)\)

The number of total candidates to be elected +1 ) For example, for the election to the Rajya Sabha, the voters from Kerala are the 140 members of the Kerala Assembly. According to the equation for deciding the quota:

\(\frac{140}{3+1} + 1 = 36\)

The number of total members from Kerala to the Rajya Sabha is 9. One-third of them (that is 3) complete their term every two years. So each time 3 members are elected.

Normally in India elections to the Lok Sabha take place every five years. For each election, there is a long procedure. 

a) Preparing the Voters List – This is the first step. The names of adults living in a constituency for more than a certain period are included in the list.

b) Deciding the boundaries of the constituency: Normally, after each census the boundaries of the Constituencies are decided. This is because of the change in the number of the people. 

c) Appointment of the Election Officials: The Election Commission appoints Chief Election Officers, Returning Officers, Presiding Officers, Polling Officers, and Polling Assistants. 

d) Fixing polling stations and booths. 

e) Notification and Nominations 

f) After the notification, Political Parties publish their manifestos. 

g) Election Propaganda – After the notification political parties start their Election Propaganda. 

h) Voting -Two days before the voting, propaganda has to be stopped. On the voting day, voters go to the booths and vote. 

i) Counting Votes 

j) Taking the Pledge – The elected members have to take the. pledge before they become members of the House. k) Presenting election accounts 

l) Election-related complaints-Any candidate or voter can give complaints about the election. Such complaints are to be filed in the local High Court.

Y.M Quershi  is the chief Election Commissioner of India.

A Judge of the Supreme Court of India is to hold office until he attains the age of 65 years

First Past the Post System: 

Its features : 

• The entire country is divided into separate constituencies. 
• For each constituency, one representative is elected. 
• The candidate who gets the highest number of votes in the constituency is declared as the winner. 
• In this system, a candidate who gets more votes than the other candidates wins. 
• It is not necessary for a candidate to have a majority (50%+1) to win. 
• This system is also known as plurality system, 
• This is the system suggested by the Constitution.

Proportional Representations:

Its features: 

a) A large area is considered as a constituency. 

b) There are two different methods in this system: 

i) In some countries, the entire country is

considered a constituency. Depending on the votes received by each party in the national election, seats are distributed, (e.g. Israel, Netherlands). 

ii) In the second method, the country is divided into multi-member constituencies, (e.g. Argentina, Portugal). 

c) Each Party prepares a list of candidates for each constituency. 

d) It is possible to elect more than one candidate from one constituency. 

e) The Voters vote for the Party and not for the candidates.

i) To prevent money and muscle power:

• The election expenses must be borne by the Nation.
• Candidates and parties must present audited accounts of their election expenses.
• Limit should be put to the election expenses. Those who exceed the limit should be disqualified. 
• Criminals should not be allowed to contest. 
• Strong actions against violent acts like booth-capturing. 

ii) To control political parties: 

• In the political parties, democratic and secular values should be stressed. 
• Registration of the parties should be made compulsory. 
• Party officers are to be elected from time to time. 
• Accounts should be audited and published. 

iii) To reform the election process and conduct of the election: 

• Election Commission should be broad based. Its number should be increased.
• Identity cards with photos should be made compulsory for voting. 
• Voters’ list must be up-to-date and complete. 
• Make voting compulsory.

 iv) For Women Representation: 

• Make reservations in the Assembly and Parliament seats. 
• Give women responsible positions in parties. 
• Take steps to overcome the attitude of the society to keep women away from public and political activities. 
• Political parties must let more women candidates contest.

Defects of the Indian election system: 

a) Influence of money: According to the Company Law 1956, companies can give any amount of money as contributions to the candidate or the political parties. The influence of these rich people will be found in the elected candidates and naturally, they won’t be just or impartial in their decisions. 

b) Violence in Politics: Politics becomes an arena where muscle power plays a role. There is impersonation and booth capturing. Agents of rival candidates are attacked. People are threatened and so some people prefer not to vote. With this kind of activities, even criminals and criminally minded people get elected. 

c) Influence of Caste and Religion: According to law, no candidate can seek vote in the name of religion, caste, community or language. But many candidates somehow try to exploit these emotions in the voters. Recently the election of a candidate in Punjab was canceled by the Supreme Court as he canvassed votes in the name of religion.

d) Concessions given during Election Time: Governments often embark on people-friendly projects just before the election. There are loanmelas, mid-day meals, and distribution of grains at low prices. This is very unhealthy. Collecting votes by spending public money is very bad. 

e) The paradox between votes and seats: In most elections, we see that a party may get more seats but their total votes will be less. In the 1984 election Congress party got only 49.1% of the polled vote and only 30% of the total vote. But in the Lok Sabha, it had % majority. The Assembly elections also give the same picture. This is against the principle of democracy where majority decides things. 

f) Defects in the Election Procedure: Lakhs of Indian citizens are denied their voting rights as their names are left out of the voters’ list. Many parties resort to violence and booth capturing.

Major functions of the Election Commission of India: 

a) Preparing the voters’ list correctly and scientifically. Giving appropriate instructions for its preparations and supervising its making. 

b) Conducting the election of the President, Vice President, MPs, and MLAs. 

c) Preparing time tables for elections. 

d) The Commission has the right to cancel the polling of a particular booth or even the entire constituency if malpractices are detected. Threatening the voters, burning booths, taking away ballot boxes, etc. are very big crimes. If such things happen, the election in that constituency can be canceled. If such things happen only.in some booths, the polling there can be cancelled. On 23 November 1984, the Election Commission ordered re-polling in 78 booths all over the country. 

e) The Commission appoints Returning Officers and Asstt. Returning Officers. 

f) The Commission allots different political parties their symbols. 

g) It is the Commission that approves political parties to contest in the election. It decides what kind of recognition is given to each political party, whether State Level or National Level. In the November 1989 Lok Sabha elections, the Commission recognized 9 parties as National level Parties. 

h) The Commission ensures that only those who have voting rights vote. It also has to prevent impersonation during voting. 

i) It is the duty of the Commission to establish booths at convenient places so that voters won’t have to travel long distances. 

j) The Commission has to make sure that ballot boxes are collected after the election and kept away securely. It also has to ensure that the counting of votes is done fairly and declare the results. 

k) The Commission brings out the code of conduct for the political parties and independent candidates. 

l) It also has to control and guide the Officers appointed by the Union Government and State Governments to conduct elections.

m) All election results are declared by the Election Commission.

• Adult franchise 
• Direct election 
• One member constituencies 
• Secret ballot 
• FPTP system 
• Proportional Representation 
• Reservation of constituencies

The Lok Sabha Secretariat comes under the direct supervision of Ministry of Human Affairs.

The party that got less seats than the winning party is the political minority party

The system of Single Transferable Vote is known as Hare system. The person who invented this system was Thomas Hare, a British man. He mentioned this system in his book “Machinery of Representation” in 1851. Later in his book “The Election of Representatives” he elaborated this concept. Andrea, who was the Finance Minister of Denmark, used this system in his country. Then it was also known as the Andrea System. In giving his vote, the voter gives his preferences and therefore this system is also called Preferential System. In the Republic of Ireland, South Africa and Canada this system is followed.

The Indian Constitution gives equal and nondiscriminatory voting rights to its citizens. But there are some conditions in which citizens are denied this right. 

The following groups have no voting rights:

• Those who have not reached the voting age. 
• Those who do not stay in India. Mentally afflicted people. 
• Criminals (who are punished for corruption and election malpractices). 
• Those whose names do not appear in the voters’ list.

The proponent of the Hare System is Thomas Hare

Correct option is C) prevalent

Correct option is A) oblige

Globalization refers to the growing interdependence of societies across the world, with the spread of 5 the same culture and economic interests across the globe. 

For example, media and consumer products are often produced for a world market, by the same firms running business all over the world. 

Factors Contributing to Globalization: 

Anthony Girl – has explained the following factors as contributing to Globalization:

1. The Rise of Information and Communications Technology: The explosion in global communications has been facilitated by a number of important advances in technology and the world’s telecommunication infrastructure. The spread of communication satellites has also been significant in expanding international communications. Today a network of more than 200 satellites is in space to facilitate the transfer of information around the globe.

The use of Satellites, Internet, Telephones, Computer Networking, known as Information and Communication Technologies – ICT – have revolutionised the way the world communicates. You could be chatting online, through the internet, with your friend or. family, who is thousands of miles away, and feel that you share your everyday travails much more than a person who is closer home like your neighbor. You could be working in India for a company that is located in the United States of America through telecommunication technologies.

2. Information Flows: It has also facilitated the flow of information about people and events in distant places. Every day, the global media brings news, images, and information into homes, linking them directly and continuously to the outside world. Some of the most gripping events of the past three decades – such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, the violent crackdown on democratic protesters in China’s Tiananmen Square and the Terrorist attacks on Mumbai on 11 September 2001, Spring movement in Arabian countries, have unfolded through the media before global audience.

Such events, along with thousands of information, have resulted in a reorientation in people’s thinking from the level of the nationstate to the global stage. In the case of natural disasters, such interventions take the form of humanitarian relief and technical assistance. In recent years, earthquakes in Armenia and Turkey, floods in Mozambique and Bangladesh, famine in Africa and hurricanes in Central America have been rallying points for global assistance.

3. Knowledge Society: The emergence of the knowledge society has been linked to the development of a broad base of consumers who are technologically literate and eagerly integrate new advances in computing, entertainment, and Telecommunications into their everyday lives. The very operation of the global economy reflects the changes that have occurred in the information age. Many aspects of the economy now work through networks that cross national boundaries, rather than stopping at them.

4. Transnational Corporations: In globalization, the role of transnational corporations is particularly important. Transnational corporations are companies that produce goods or market services in more than one country. For example Coca-Cola., Pepsi, Johnson and Johnson, Ford, General Motors, Colgate-Palmolive, Indian corporations like Reliance, TATAs, Birla Groups, Infosys, Mahindras, TVS group, Wipro, etc. Even when trans-national corporations have a clear national base, they are oriented towards global markets and global profits. Transnational corporations are at the heart of economic globalization.

5. The Electronic Economy: Globalization is also being driven forward by the integration of the world economy. In contrast to previous eras, the global economy is no longer primarily agricultural or industrial in its basis. Rather, it is increasingly dominated by activity that is weightless and intangible. This U weightless economy is one in which products have their base in information, as is the case with computer software, media and; entertainment products and Internet-based services.

The ‘Electronic Economy’ is another factor ‘that underpins economic globalization. Banks, corporations, fund managers and individual investors are able to shift funds internationally with the click of a mouse. As the global economy becomes increasingly integrated, a financial collapse in one part of the world can have an enormous effect on distant economies.

6. Political changes: Another driving force behind contemporary globalization is related to political change. 

These are:

a. The collapse of Soviet-style communism in 1991. The collapse of communism has hastened processes of globalization but should also be seen as a result of globalization itself.

b.The important political factor leading to intensifying globalization is the Growth of International and Regional Mechanisms of Government namely The United Nations and the European Union. SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation) and BRICS (Brazil; Russia, India, China and South Africa) are; the two most prominent examples of international organizations that bring together nation-states into a common political forum.

Finally, globalization is being driven by International Governmental Organizations (IGOs) and International Non¬governmental Organizations (INGOs). An IGO is a body that is established by Participating governments and given responsibility for regulating or overseeing a particular domain of activity that is transnational in scope. The first such body, The International Telegraph Union, was founded in 1865. Since that time, a great number of similar bodies have been created.

In 1909, there were only 37 IGOs in existence to regulate transnational affairs; by 1996, there were 260. Some of the best known INGOs – such as Greenpeace, Medicines Sans Frontiers (Doctors Without Borders), the Red Cross and Amnesty International-are involved in environmental protection and humanitarian efforts. But the activities of thousands of lesser known groups also link together countries and communities.

Correct option is D) drawback

1. Legislative functions: The power of Loksabha extends to all subjects falling under the Union list and the Concurrent list. In case of emergency in operation its power also extends to State list as well. No bill can become a law without the consent of Loksabha. The Loksabha has equal powers of law making with Rajyasabha except on financial matters where the supremacy of Loksabha is total.

In case of disagreement between the two houses on a matter of legislation, it is resolved by a Joint Sitting of both the houses presided over by the Speaker. In a Joint Sitting, Loksabha would emerge triumphant because the decisions are taken by a majority of the total number of members of both the house present and voting in which the numerical superiority of Loksabha prevails.

2. Financial functions: On financial matters, the supremacy of the Loksabha is total and complete. “One, who holds purse, holds power” said James Madison. By establishing its authority over the national purse, Loksabha establishes its authority over the Rajyasabha.

It is expressly stated that Money bill can originate only in the house of people. Regarding budget, Loksabha being a representative house enjoys total authority. Loksabha’s position on financial matters is such that the demands for grants are placed only before the Loksabha.

3. Control over the executive: The Loksabha enjoys direct control over the executive because; executive is directly responsible to the lower house and stays in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the house. The Loksabha not only makes laws but also supervises the implementation. The lower house being a debating house, the members are free to seek information from the executive and raise questions and seek clarifications.

The members can effectively seek information from the government by way of discussions and debates during the Question Hour (seek clarification), the Adjournment Motion (raises issues of national importance), the Zero Hour, the Cu motion, the Call-attention motion, etc. The soundest way of controlling the executive is by way of moving the No-confidence motion, if the executive fails to win the support of Lok sabha, they must step down.

4. Constituent functions: The Loksabha shares equal powers in regard to amending provisions of the constitution. An amendment may be initiated either in the Rajyasabha or Loksabha and must be passed by a 2/3 majority in both the houses present and voting. The agreement of Rajyasabha is compulsory for the success of constitutional amendment.

5. Electoral functions: The Loksabha and Rajyasabha elect the highest constitutional functionaries such as the President and the Vice-president. The President is elected by the members of Loksabha and Rajyasabha along with the members of Legislative Assemblies of the states. The Vice-president is elected by members of Loksabha and Rajyasabha.

6. Judicial functions: The Loksabha acts as a judge in the impeachment of the President. Either house can prefer the charge of impeachment. If Rajyasabha prefers the charge, Loksabha investigates the charge and if it passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority of the total membership of the house, President stands impeached from the office.

He Loksabha also sits in Judgement, along with the Rajyasabha, in removing high constitutional functionaries such as the Comptroller and Auditor General, The Chief Vigilance Commissioner, the Chief Election Commissioner etc.

Life of every member of the Indian society is to a large extent influenced by three systems viz., joint family, caste system and village community. They influence one’s occupation, food, dress habits, philosophy, and marriage. The study of caste system is important because caste in India is an all pervasive and deep rooted social institution. 

Definitions of Caste:

1. Herbert Risley has defined caste as “A collection of families or a group of families bearing a common name, claiming common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarding by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community”.

2. S. V. Kethkar in his work ‘History of Caste in India’ states that A caste is a group having two characteristics.

• Membership is confined to only those who are born of other members. 
• The members are forbidden by an inexorable social law to marry outside the group (Endogamy)”.

1. Caste as a Segmental Division of Society: The society is divided into various castes with a well developed life of their own. The membership in a caste is determined by birth. Caste has hereditary status, which is determined.by birth. Each caste has a council of its own, known as caste Panchayat.

Caste panchayats imposed certain restrictions on social intercourse between castes like marriages commensal and occupational interactions. By these restrictions, each caste had its own way of life. Violation of caste norms attracted punishment from the caste panchayat depending on the seriousness of the violations.

2. The Beginning Hierarchy: The whole society is divided into distinct castes with a concept of high and low, or as superior and inferior associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins were placed at the top of the hierarchy and regarded as pure. The degraded castes or untouchables occupied the other end of the hierarchy. They were subjected to manifold disabilities.

3. Restrictions on Feeding and Social Intercourse: There are minute rules as to what sort of food or drink can be accepted by a person and from what castes, who should accept food or drink at the hands of whom is defined by caste.

4. Civil and Religious Disabilities and Privileges of the Different Sections: Segregation of individual castes or groups of castes in a village is the most obvious mark of civil privileges and disabilities and it has prevailed in a more or less definite form all over India. Generally, untouchables were made to live on the outskirts. Certain parts of the town or village are inaccessible to certain castes. Restrictions on using public roads, water facilities, Hotels, etc.

5. Restrictions on occupations: According to G.S. Ghurye, every caste was associated with a traditional occupation. The technical skill of the occupation was made hereditary. Since a distinction was made between occupation being clean and unclean. The hereditary occupations reflected a caste status.

6. Restrictions on Marriages (Endogamy): Finally, every caste also maintained its rank and status regarding marriages, inter caste marriages were prohibited. Hence they practiced endogamy. Caste is an endogamous group. “Endogamy is the essence of the caste system. Every caste was segmented into sub-casteS, and these sub castes were the units of endogamy.”