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(a) 2.

(b) Group 2 .

(c) XCl₂ .

Portia is a powerful character. Portia pleaded the case of Antonio against he court. She wanted that Antonio should be saved at any cost. She was very intelligent. The Duke was the judge in the trial. Portia was fully prepared. First of all she tried her best that Shylock should forgive Antonio. She appealed to show mercy on him. She told him the qualities of mercy and proved that mercy is a Divine quality and the man who shows mercy is remembered and worshipped like God. But Shylock did not move a little and was adamant on his demand of a pound of flesh according to the bond.

Then very skilfully and confidently Portia allowed him to make the flesh and asked Antonio to be ready. When Shylock wanted to pierce the knife into Antonio’s chest, she warned him with a condition, “According to Bond you have full right to take the flesh but without shedding even a single drop of blood otherwise all your wealth will be confiscated by the state.’

Now Shylock was helpless. He recoils and asks for mercy. He is pardoned by the Duke conditionally. Thus, I can say that it is the skill, virtue and intelligence of Portia which saved the life of Antonio and taught a lesson to Shylock.

Diborane burns in oxygen releasing an enormous amount of energy.

 B₂H₆ + 3O₂ → B₂O₃ + 3H₂O

Portia was a beautiful and intelligent woman. She was the only daughter of a very wealthy man. Her father had died leaving her a large estate. Her father had written a will on how Portia’s husband had to be selected. Portia happily married Bassanio in accordance with her father’s will.

The novel invention is “The Happiness Machine”.

If he didn’t repay the money in time, he would forfeit a pound of flesh, to be cut off from any part of his body

(i) Boron- making bullet proof vest and light composite material for aircraft

(ii) Aluminium- forms alloys which can be used for packing, utensils aero plane, constructions etc.

THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 

A play presented by English club of XYZ School

Dear Friends, 

The English Club of XYZ School has decided to stage the one-act play based on the story ‘The Merchant of Venice’ by William Shakespeare as a part of the Annual day celebrations of the school. The members of the English Club have prepared the script and directed the play. Sri Kavalam Narayana Panicker, the renowned poet and theatre personality has consented to inaugurate the staging of the play.

All are Welcome

Antonio is the hero of the play “The Merchant of Venice’. Some of the striking features of his character are given below : 

(1) His Melancholy : In the opening scene of the play he tells his friends that he is sad for some unknown reasons. This depression of spirits continues with him through out the whole play.. 

(2) His Sincere Love for Bassanio : His love for Bassanio is so much sincere that he signs a fatal bond for his friend’s happiness. He does not inform Bassanio until the bond expires lest he should mar his happiness in Belmont. And when Bassanio goes to Belmont he bursts into tears. All this reveals his deep love for Bassanio. 

(3) His Kindness : He is also very kind. It is admitted even by Shylock. But it must be admitted that he is kind only to ChristiAnswer : 

(4) His Intolerance : Among his weaknesses the first weakness is his intolerance of Judaism. Shylock says that Antonio hates his sacred nation. It is also evident from the mercy he shows to Shylock in the Trial scene. 

(5) His Indiscretion : He is also indiscreet. He finds faults with Shylock for his usuary, abuses him and even spits at him. 

(6) His Weak Heartedness : It is evident when, at the expiry of bond, he goes to Shylock and begs him of mercy. It rather smacks of ignobility. A hero should not have come down to such a low level. 

Thus the above points show that the critics rightly call him a ‘Passive Hero’. or ‘A pigmy of a Shakespearean Hero’.

Portia’s suitors had to choose between three caskets – one of gold, one of silver and one of lead.

The young lawyer fighting Antonio’s case asked Shylock to show mercy. Shylock was adamant and stuck to the bond saying that all he wanted was a pound of Antonio’s flesh. The lawyer then cleverly allowed Shylock to take Antonio’s pound of flesh.

The lawyer warned the Jew that while doing so, he should not shed even one drop of Antonio’s blood. He also warned Shylock that he should cut exactly one pound of flesh – nothing less and nothing more, according to the bond.

Portia is a rich lady of Belmont. She is among the best heroines created by Shakespeare. She possesses most virtues in proper moderation. Her faults a her virtues balance each other. We find the following main points in her character: 

(1) Her Beauty : Portia possesses not only physical beauty but also beauty of character. She is a goldilocks and her golden locks hang on her temples like a golden fleece. She is renowned for her physical beauty and that is why all desire for her. She possesses beauty of character too in an eminent degree. She is an ideal woman, dutiful, loving and self effacing. She obeys the will of her dead father and does not violate, even a little. 

(2) Her Intelligence : Many suitors come to her and she understands their characters immediately. Her intelligence can also be seen from the quickness with which she understands that Bassanio is worried after reading Antonio’s letter. She notes the change of colour on his face and feels that he is so worried because the letter has given him bad news about his friend. Portia does not take anytime in making a plan to save Antonio. 

(3) Her Strong Sense of Justice : Portia possesses a strong sense of justice. When Bassanio requests the Duke to break the Law in order to save Antonio’s life, Portia immediately objects that by doing so, the importance and value of the laws of Venice would be destroyed forever. 

Her love of justice is also touched with mercy and kindness. Soon after she enters the court, she begs Shylock to have mercy on Antonio. But she fails. Then she puts such arguments and pleads the case so well that Antonio’s life is saved and Shylock equests to show mercy on him. ihus Portia’s character is made up of beauty, the finest of human virtues, great intelligence, determination, force of character, loyalty to her husband and her dead father, etc.

Mg has stable electronic configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² due to the presence of completely filled 3s orbital from which it is difficult to remove electron than 3s¹ orbitals electron from Na (1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹). Second ionization enthalpy of Na is higher than Mg because it has stable electronic configuration of Na⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p⁶) as compared to Mg⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹).

Portia is a rich lady of Belmont. She is among the best heroines created by Shakespeare. She possesses most virtues in proper moderation. Her faults a her virtues balance each other. We find the following main points in her character: 

(1) Her Beauty : Portia possesses not only physical beauty but also beauty of character. She is a goldilocks and her golden locks hang on her temples like a golden fleece. She is renowned for her physical beauty and that is why all desire for her. She possesses beauty of character too in an eminent degree. She is an ideal woman, dutiful, loving and self effacing. She obeys the will of her dead father and does not violate, even a little. 

(2) Her Intelligence : Many suitors come to her and she understands their characters immediately. Her intelligence can also be seen from the quickness with which she understands that Bassanio is worried after reading Antonio’s letter. She notes the change of colour on his face and feels that he is so worried because the letter has given him bad news about his friend. Portia does not take anytime in making a plan to save Antonio. 

(3) Her Strong Sense of Justice : Portia possesses a strong sense of justice. When Bassanio requests the Duke to break the Law in order to save Antonio’s life, Portia immediately objects that by doing so, the importance and value of the laws of Venice would be destroyed forever. 

Her love of justice is also touched with mercy and kindness. Soon after she enters the court, she begs Shylock to have mercy on Antonio. But she fails. Then she puts such arguments and pleads the case so well that Antonio’s life is saved and Shylock equests to show mercy on him. ihus Portia’s character is made up of beauty, the finest of human virtues, great intelligence, determination, force of character, loyalty to her husband and her dead father, etc.

Comedy is a stage play which is full of humour and laughter. But Shakespeare’s comedies possess a strong and well developed love interest along with certain complications of plot, disguises and various other devices one essential trait of comedy is the absence of death.

The Merchant of Venice has two main reasons in favour of its being a comedy. First is the element of love, a romantic theme and second is its happy end with the hero victorious and the villain vanguished. By the end of the play the three pairs of lovers are happily united and all obstacles in the path of true love are removed. Portia and Bassanio are united to each other. Their pretended quarrel over the wedding rings comes to an end. The shadow of Antonio’s possible death, that hangs over their happiness is also removed. In the same way the love affairs of Gratiano and Nerissa are fulfilled after Bassanio wins the hand of Portia. By the trick of Antonio all the property of Shylock is gifted to Lorenzo and thus Lorenzo becomes a rich man. Thus the union of the three pairs of lovers make the play essentially a comedy.

Another characteristic of comedy–frequent interludes which cause laughter is also found in the play. The actions and words of Lorenzo are a source of perpetual laughter. Portia’s comments also frequently force the audience to laugh. Finally, the entire ring episode is designed to create laughter and to destroy the tension generated by the trial scene.

But some critics see the another side of Shylock and feel that Shylock is turned into a cruel and malicious man. Thus the critics who feel sympathy for Shylock view the. play as a tragi comedy while those who have no sympathy for him see the play as a pure comedy.

It is not possible to find the exact position and velocity of electron simultaneously.

It states that, “It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a moving electron”.

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated gaseous atom. Ionization energy increases along the period and decreases down the group.

The electronic configuration of the ions obtained after removal of first electron from the elements of 2^nd period from left to right are: Li⁺ (1s²), Be⁺ (1s² 2s¹), B⁺ (1s² 2s²), O (1s² 2s² 2p¹), N⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p²), O^- (1s² 2s² 2p³), F (1s² 2s² 2p⁴), Ne⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p³). 

The following conclusions can be drawn from the above configurations: 

(i) Li⁺ has noble gas, i.e., He gas configuration, therefore, AlH₂ of Li is the highest in the second period. 

(ii) Since in B⁺, the electron has to be removed from a more stable fully filled 28- orbital while in Be⁺, it has to be lost from the less stable half-filled 2s-orbital and furthermore, the loss of an electron from Be+ gives more stable Be²⁺ ion with noble gas configuration, therefore, AjH₂ of Be is lower than that of B.

(iii) Since more energy is required to remove an s-electron than a p-electron of the same energy level, therefore, more energy is required to remove a 2s-electron from B⁺ (1s² 2s²) than a 2p-electron from C⁺ (1s² 2s² 2P¹). In other words, Δ_iH₂ of C is lower than that of B. 

(iv) As we move from C to N to O, the nuclear charge increases by one unit at a time, therefore, their Δ_iH₂ also increase accordingly. In other words, Δ_iH₂ of O is higher than that of N which, in turn, is higher than that of C. 

(v) In case of O⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p³) an electron is to be lost from an exactly half-filled 2p-orbital but in case of F⁺( 1s² 2s² 2p⁴) this is not so. However, loss of an electron from F⁺ gives an exactly half-filled 2p-orbital (i.e., F²⁺ ( 1s² 2s² 2p³), therefore, Δ_iH₂ of F should be lower than that of O. 

(vi) Like O⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p³) and F⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p⁴), in case of Ne⁺ (1s² 2s² 2p⁵) also an electron is to be removed from a 2p-orbital. Since Ne has the highest nuclear charge in 2nd period, Δ_iH₂ of Ne is expected to be much higher than that of O or F. From the above discussion, it follows that Δ_iH₂ of the elements of 2nd period increase in the order: Be < C < B < N < F < O < Ne < Li.

Ions having same number of electrons but differ in the atomic number.

The various factors due to which the ionization enthalpy of the main group elements tends to decrease down a group are:

(i) As we go down in a group, the nuclear charge increases.

(ii) As we go down in a group the atomic size increases due to the addition of a new shell at each element.

(iii) As we go down in a group, the number of inner electrons increases. This decreases the shielding effect on the outer electrons.

The combined effect of the increase in atomic size and the shielding effect is more than the effect of the increase of the nuclear charge. These effects act in such a way that the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron decreases. As a result the ionization enthalpy, decreases as we go down the group.

Ionisation energy increases along the period and decreases down the group.

As the size increases, tendency to add the electron decreases hence electron gain enthalpy becomes less – ve.

Valence shell configuration of halogens is ns² np⁵, so they require only one more electron to acquire stable noble gas configuration. So, they have a strong tendency to accept an additional electron.

Due to the small size, electron – electron repulsions in the compact 2p subshell are large, hence, incoming electron is not accepted with the same ease as in Cl.

Cl has higher electron affinity than F. This is due to small size of fluorine. As a result of its very small size the,inter-electronic repulsions in relatively compact 2p-subshell of fluorine atom are more than those in relatively large 3p sub-shell of chlorine atom. On comparing chloride ion with fluoride ion we find that electron density per unit volume in fluoride ion (F^-) is more than in chloride (Cl^-) ion. This means that coming electrons in fluorine atom finds less attraction than in chlorine atom. Consequently, electron affinity of chlorine is higher than that of fluorine.

Correct option is (c) F > O > N > P

The repetition of similar properties after regular intervals is called periodicity.

The properties of elements are the periodic repetition of similar electronic configuration of elements as the atomic number increases. 

Atomic radius generally decreases from left to right across a period. This is because within a period, the outer electrons are present in the same valence shell and the atomic number increases from left to right across a period, resulting in an increased effective nuclear charge. As a result, the attraction of electrons to the nucleus increases.

On the other hand, the atomic radius generally increases down a group. This is because down a group, the principal quantum number (n) increases which results in an increase of the distance between the nucleus and valence electrons.

Correct option is (c) CI > F > Br > I

It is due to the similarity in the outer electronic configurations which gives rise to the periodic properties of the elements. 

(a) In a group: 

(i) Electronegativity- It decreases down the group. 

(ii) Ionisation enthalpy- It decreases down the group. 

(iii) Atomic size- It increases down the group. 

(b) In a period: 

(i) Electronegativity- Increases 

(ii) Ionisation enthalpy- Increases 

(iii) Atomic size- Dereases. 

It increases from top bottom in a group.

In group- Atomic size increases on moving from top to bottom. 

In period- Atomic size decreases on moving left to right in a period.

The repetition of similar properties after regular intervals is called as periodicity. It is due to the similarity in the outer electronic configurations which gives rise to the periodic properties of the elements. 

Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.

Physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number and classified the elements according to their atomic number.

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic numbers.

It increases from top to bottom in a group.

The one-half the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms of the same element in a molecule is called as atomic radius.

Electronic configuration of hydrogen: one as it has one electron in the shell and the atomic number is one.

Depending on the particular subshell which is filled up, the 113 elements are divided into s, p, d and f block elements. The s and p block elements, corresponding to filling up of the outermost shell (the valence shell), show the maximum variation in properties and are placed in the main groups of the periodic table (groups 1, 2 and 13 to 18) and are called representative elements.

s-block – Elements in which last electron enters the s orbital of their outermost shell. Since there is only one orbital in s block which can accommodate two electrons so there are two groups in s block.

• Group 1 (alkali metals), group 2 (alkaline earth metals)
• General electronic configuration : ns^1-2 , n = 2-7

p-block – Elements in which last electron enters any one of the three p orbitals. Since p subshell has three orbitals which can accommodate six electrons so there are 6 groups in periodic table.

• Group 13 – 18
• General electronic configuration : ns² np^1-6 , n = 2-7
• group 16 : chalcogens,
• group 17 : halogens
• group 18 : noble gases

Elements of s and p block collectively are called representative elements.

d-block – Elements in which last electron enters any one of the five d orbitals of their respective penultimate shells. Since d subshell has five d orbitals, which can accommodate ten electrons so there are 10 groups in the periodic table.

• Group 3 – 12 
• General electronic configuration : (n-1)d ns^1-10 , n = 4-7. Since properties of these elements are midway between s and p block. They are called transition elements. An incomplete d subshell in the atom or its stable ion is a pre – Condition for transition elements.

The f block elements correspond to filling up of the prepenultimate shell, show very little variation in properties and are placed separately as lanthanoids and actinoids outside the periodic table. Lanthanum is not a lanthanoid and actinium is not an actinoid.

General electronic configuration : (n-2) f^1-14 (n-1) d^0-1 ns² , n = 6-7

There are two series in f block

Lanthanoids (Ce₅₈-Lu₇₁) = 4f orbitals are filled

Actinoids (Th₉₀ -Lr₁₀₃) = 5f orbitals are filled. They are known as inner transition elements since they form transition series within d block.

(a) s-block elements: An element in which the outermost (differentiating) electron of its atom belongs to s-orbital of valence shell is called s-block elements. Kept in left hand side of the periodic table, group I & II (or IA & lIA). 

(b) p-block elements: An element in which the outermost (differentiating) electron of its atom belongs to p-orbital of valence shell is called p-block elements. Kept in right hand side of the periodic table, group 13 to 18. Elements in group 18 are called Aerogens or Noble gases. General electronic configuration of p-block elements is ns² np^1-6. Both s and p block together is called representative or normal elements.

(c) d-block elements: The atom of an element in which outermost (differentiating) electron enters to d- sub shell of pen ultimate (n-1) shell is called d-block elements. Kept at middle (between s and p block elements) portion of the periodic table, group 3 to 12. 

(d) f-block elements: An element in which outermost (differentiating) electron of its atom enters to f-sub shell of anti-penultimate (n-2) shell is called f -block elements. Placed separately at the bottom portion of the periodic table. General electronic configuration of f-block elements is (n – 2) f^1-14 (n-l)d¹ns².

Elements in the same vertical column or group have similar valence shell electronic configurations, the same number of electrons in the outer orbitals, and similar properties.

(a) I⁺ < I < I^- 

(b) O < N < P

The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers.

N P, As, Sb, Bi all have five electrons in the outer sub-shell.

₂₉Cu: 3d¹⁰ 4s¹

O, S, Se, Te would tend to lose two electrons.

In 18 groups and 7 periods.