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In Presidential form of government.

1. National unity and local autonomy 

2. Favourable to democracy.

1. Dual citizenship 

2. Bicameral system 

3. Dual use of sovereignty.

Such a system of governance, wherein all the powers of a state are divided between union government and states, is called federal government. Countries, namely, India, United States of America, Canada, Switzerland, etc. have federal governments.

Such a system of governance, wherein the executive is responsible towards the legislature, is called parliamentary form of government.

In parliamentary form of government, there is mutual cooperation between the executive and the legislature.

In federal government, powers are segregated between central government and provincial governments.

In presidential government.

Parliamentary form of government opposes the principle of separation of powers.

Because of division of powers in federal government, there happen perpetual disputes between the centre and its constituent (state governments) units.

In unitary governance, fear of central government becoming autocratic, looms large.

In presidential form of government, the government is stable.

The principle of separation of powers is the basis of presidential government.

1. Fear of central governance going autocratic

2. Governance of bureaucracy

1. Uniformity in administration 

2. National unity.

In presidential form of government, the executive is autocratic and not answerable to the legislature.

The Municipal Corporation (or a Municipality) establishes primary and secondary schools, night-schools and adult education centers.

A large section of the tribal population of India live in Noth eastern State.

inequality is built into the fabric of society and passed down from one generation to the next.

Religion tends to bring together people of the faith to celebrate commonly cherished festivals and events.

Shortcomings defects of Unitary Government: 

Three defects / shortcomings of unitary government are as follows: 

1. Fear of center government becoming autocratic: 

The centralization of powers gives birth to the tendency of autocracy. In unitary system of governance, entire with the central government. In this situation, there is a fear of the government becoming autocratic and dictatorial.

2. Inappropriate for huge states: 

In countries having mass population and big area and also having diversity in terms of language, race, religion and culture, the unitary form of government is not liable to function smoothly and successfully. 

3. Apathy of people: 

In unitary government, local people do not get an opportunity to extend their hand of cooperation in governance-related works.As the people have no active role to play in political matters, they lose interest, and as such, apathy rules over them.

Language plays an important role of communication in an organisation.

Features of Unitary Government: 

The following are the main features of unitary government: 

1. Power of governance being concentrated in central government: 

In Unitary government, the constitution delegates entire powers of governance to the central government. Hence, in this system of governance, power of governance is concentrated in central government. 

2. Multiple forms of constitution: 

In Unitary government, the constitution of the country may be in any form – written, unwritten, flexible or rigid. 

3. The basis of powers of units (constituents) is central will: 

As state units work as representatives of central government in unitary government, hence the constitution is not the basis for the powers or autonomy provided to them, instead, it is the discretion of central government. 

4. Lack of division of power between center and provincial Units: 

In Unitary government, a division of power between center and states is not made by the constitution. There is only one source of governance. Entire power of governance is center in central government and entire work of governance is carried out in accordance with its will.

1. Only one government in entire state 

2. Local governance is also a part of central governance.

Main Characteristics of Presidential Government: 

In the present democratic era, the second most popular form of government is presidential government. In this system of governance, the legislature and the executive are quite distinct and independent from each other. The basis of presidential government is the principle of separation of powers.

The main characteristics of presidential government are as follows:

1. Separation of Powers:

In presidential system, the legislature and the executive do not form a new institution as it is done in parliamentary system, that is, the executive is absolutely ‘separate’ from the legislature. The members of the executive are not the members of the legislature, nor are they responsible towards it. In this way, in presidential government, the executive and the legislature are mutually separate and independent in respect of their tenure, powers, and functions and judiciary is also independent and supreme.

2. Real Executive:

In presidential government, the executive is singular. Unlike parliamentary government, there is no distinction between the nominal and the real executive. The president is real administrator. He is the head of both, the state and the government, and uses all the powers given to the executive by the constitution in real terms.

3. Definite tenure: 

In presidential government, both the legislature and the executive are elected for a definite of time period. In this, the tenure of both – the executive and the legislature – is decided (fixed) by the constitution. In it, the head (president) of the executive is elected for a definite duration. This duration is of four years in United States of America. Before the completion of this duration, the legislature cannot oust it. Before the duration, the president can be ousted by impeachment only. But the process to initiate and implement impeachment is a very complex exercise.

4. The principle of checks and balances: 

If in the system of governance, the principle of separation of powers is adopted, them there develops hindrance in administration, because there is a need of cooperation besides independence to work in every field. And as such, the principle of checks and balances is adopted, so that there is a relation as well as restriction of one part (organ) onto the other one.

5. Political uniformity not necessary:

In presidential Rom of government, political uniformity is not necessary because there is nothing like council of ministers in the system and the president is absolutely independent in selection and expulsion of his secretaries.

Merits of Unitary Government: 

The following are three main qualities of unitary government: 

1. Uniformity in administration: 

The biggest main quality of unitary government is that the entire country has one government, which forms same kind of laws in the entire country and implements them uniformly.

2. Flexibility: 

A very important quality of unitary form of government is its flexibility. In this, the process of amendment in constitution is simple. Therefore, unitary government can easily deal with specific circumstances and instances. 

3. More appropriate form of government in emergency situations: 

Unitary government is thought to be very suitable at the time of emergency. At the time of war, armed rebellion, emergency situation or other abnormal circumstances, there becomes a need to take quick and resolute decisions and enforce them in practical terms.

This is possible only in Unitary government, because all powers are vested with central government. In the wake of this possibility,the Indian constitution has the provision to transform federal government into unitary government in emergency times.

1. Town Area Committee

2. Cantonment Board.

Gender expression is linked to gender socialisation

The Constitution of India, allows affirmative action through reservation in education and employment.

Caste an example of inequality

(b) Conflict based on religion – Communalism

• People directly elect their representatives. This method is called direct election. e.g: Loksabha, State legislative assembly, Local self-government.
• The method of election in which representatives are chosen by the elected representatives of people is indirect election. e.g: President, Vice President, Rajya Sabha

• Identify card with voter’s photo.
• Limit on the election expenses of candidates.
• Code of conduct for political parties and candidates.
• Electronic voting machine.
• Voters’ list with photo of the electors.
• Negative voting system.
• Photo of candidates on ballot paper.

Answer is 18 years

Unity implies a sense of oneness meaning integration

Characteristics of Unitary Government : 

In unitary government, all the powers of governance are embedded in one government, Central government, by the constitution or by tradition. In it, different provincial or local governments are established / instituted by the center, not by the constitution. Under this, central government delegates some of its powers to these governments of units (states). In this government, these constituents (units) have no separate independent powers. These are representatives of the central government, which can b° removed at any time by the central government.

The main characteristic of unitary government are as follows:

1. Powers of governance – centralized in central government:

In unitary government, the constitution provides all powers of governance to the central government, and as such, in this system of governance, there is a concentration of powers of governance with the central government.

2. Central government ‘all powerful’:

In this system, central government is all powerful. Its other elements have neither any independence nor any fundamental power. These are mere representatives of central government.

3. Lack of division of power between center and units (states):

In unitary government, constitution does not divide the power structure between center and states. There is only one source of governance, that is the central government.

4. The basis of powers of states – central will:

As unitary units (states) are representatives of the central government, constitution is not the basis of their powers of governance and autonomy, instead, it is a will of the central government.

5. To divide the state into different units:

In this government, states are divided into different parts for administrative convenience. These parts (units) are known by the names – state, province, department or commune, etc.

6. Diversity of the form of constitution:

In countries having unitary government, the constitution may be of any type – written, unwritten, flexible or rigid.

In India, proportional representation is adopted where we follow indirect election. In India, MLAs of State Legislative Assemblies from each state elect members of the Rajyasabha. In proportion to their strength in the state legislative assemblies at each political party can elect representatives to Rajyasabha.

Comparative analysis of parliamentary and presidential forms of government: 

1. Comparison on the basis of executive: 

In parliamentary governance, the executive has dual form. It has two Heads – the first is called President who is the head of state, and the second is Head of government. President in India and King / Queen of Britain are merely nominal heads, and Prime Minister and council of ministers are the real executive. Contrary to it, in presidential government, the head of state is also the head of government. The power of the executive is embedded in one person (President). United States of America is the best example of presidential form of governance.

2. Comparison on the basis of tenure :

In parliamentary government, the time period of real executive (council of ministers) is not definite (fixed). At any time the legislature, by passing no-confidence motion, can remove the executive, whereas the tenure of presidential executive is fixed by the constitution. In this situation, it is difficult to unseat the executive (president) before time.

3. Comparison on the basis of responsibility: 

In parliamentary governance, real executive (the council of ministers) is collectively responsible towards the legislature. Contrary to it, in presidential government, the executive is not responsible towards the legislature nor does it need the confidence of legislature for the performance of its functions.

4. Comparison on the basis of relation between executive and legislature:

In parliamentary government, a close relation exists between the executive and the legislature. The council of ministers is responsible towards the legislature. Presidential government is dependent upon the principle of separation of powers. In it, the formation of the executive is done in free from the legislature. The executive (president and his secretaries) and the legislature are mutually separated. The members of the executive are not the members of the legislature. The legislature does not have any control over the executive.

5. Comparison on the basis of powers of governance:

The basis of parliamentary government is the overlapping of powers. In this system, the executive and the legislature work together in harmony, whereas the basis of presidential government is the principle of separation of powers. In this, all the three parts of government function freely and independently of one another.

6. Comparison on the basis of status of ministers: 

In parliamentary government, the status of ministers is of high level. They are ‘all in all’ in their portfolios and play vital role in the work of formation of rules, but in presidential government, there are no ministers, instead, there are secretaries, and they work under the president.

7. Comparison on the basis of party position in government: 

In parliamentary government, whichever political party has majority in the legislature forms government, but in the absence of majority of a political party, like – minded political parties come together to form the cabinet. On the other hand, in presidential form of government, the president can appoint any capable person on the post of secretary without party consideration.

8. Comparison on the basis of change: 

In parliamentary government, changes in government can be done as per the need of time. In emergency time, this mechanism is very useful. Presidential government is rigid, and here, changes cannot be done as per need of time. In it, the tenure of the president is definite.

There are 3 organs of government.

Regionalism refers to loyalty to one’s own State or region before one’s nation. This interferes with national integration to a great extent. The history of a particular region is glorified and often it is misused to stress divisive forces, thus ignoring the common cultural legacy and heritage.

Regionalism emerges due to the desire of people speaking one language to have one State. There is also a strong urge to give priority to the economic development of one’s own region. This leads to Inter-State rivalries. So long as this Inter-State rivalry is economic and social (e.g. for funds and welfare schemes), it is healthy

But when this rivalry takes political overtones, it becomes very dangerous. Political parties give more importance and weightage to local and regional matters and problems rather than the nation. Regionalism thus strengthens sectarian biases by political parties. Interregional tensions escalate over economic, political, and such issues. This has led to regional movements for State rights and militant movements for separatism.

Example: The Jammu and Kashmir issue, the Punjab problem, Assam issue, etc. All this, if unchecked, can strike at the very root of democracy.

M. N. Srinivas examines the role of religion in social integration as a binding force among individuals and groups.

secularism implies respect and tolerance for people of all faiths.

Communalism refers to loyalty to one’s own religion before nation.

Critical Analysis of Parliamentary Government:

In parliamentary form of government, the executive is squarely answerable towards the legislature and both of these have mutual cooperation. This government is made of qualified and experienced persons. This, besides putting restriction on autocracy, gives importance to the opposition parties. 

This government is flexible. Despite this all, parliamentary government can be criticized on the basis of the following points : 

1. Opposite to the principle of separation of powers:

In parliamentary form of government the executive and the legislature have mutual relations of cohesion. The executive can easily become free-willing. Under this situation, there can be threat to the independence of citizens. By this, it is very clear that governance is against—‘the principle of separation of powers.’ 

2. Origin of autocracy: 

In this form of government, because of close relations between the executive and the legislature, there is a possibility of double danger. Diacy hints at the autocracy of the legislature and Laski says that if the executive is not in control, then the threat of autocracy may always prevail. 

3. Outrage in political group-ism: 

In parliamentary government, political parties give lest importance to the national interests and more to their party interests, due to which national interests suffer. Both the parties – Ruling and Opposition have main interest to acquire power of governance, and to retain this power, there always exists conflict and differences. 

4. Neglect of administrative works: 

Ministers have to maintain constant contact with voters and hence, a big chunk of their time goes to satisfy the voters and the rest of time in framing laws. As a result, ministers are unable to pay sufficient attention towards governance-related functions.

5. Weak government: 

In this, the system of governance is weak. The duration of governance depends on the will of the legislature. Because of the uncertain duration, the cabinet cannot implement influential and long-term plans.

6. Unstable government:

In parliamentary system, the party having majority forms the government, and sometimes, when one party does not have clear majority, then some parties collectively form a coalition government, due to this there is a lack of stability in this cabinet.

7. Not suitable for emergency situations: 

This form of government is not suitable for emergency situations, because in this government, there exists dispute in respect of decisions and not policy assessment. Much time is wasted in this system of governance. Hence, this system is not proper and suitable in emergency period or in war-like circumstances.

8. Governance of incapable persons: 

In parliamentary form of government, the selection of ministers is not done on basis of their skill and administrative experience, instead, they are put on work on the basis of their popularity. In this condition, sometimes power vests with wrong persons.

9. Fear of a dictatorship of majority party:

In parliamentary form of government, the party having majority forms the government. If any party is having very strong majority, then the nature of tyranny gets momentum. Taking support of the majority, this party becomes autocratic. Sometimes, this party makes amendments in the constitution in its own favour. In this way, the tyranny of majority increases in this form of government.

10. Nature of dictatorship of cabinet:

In parliamentary form of government, in principle, the cabinet is absolutely responsible towards the legislature, but in practice, gradually the legislature begins to put its stamp of acknowledgment as a means of mere formality on the decision taken by the cabinet. In this way, the control of parliament on the cabinet remains there in principle only, and in fact, the cabinet rules the system.

Answer is All the above

Communalism: Communalism refers mainly to loyalty to one’s own religion before the nation. It implies extreme pride in and identification with one’s own religion. India is one of the countries in the world where so many religions co-exist side by side. Communal conflict is a displeasing factor that affects the unity of the nation.

Socially, communal conflict creates feelings of deep hatred, bitterness, and antagonism between members of different religious communities. Such conflicts also lead to feelings of insecurity and they loosen bonds of solidarity. Economically, communal conflicts retard economic growth and development. Often, resources have to be diverted for the damage caused by communal riots and clashes. Production suffers and there is a severe monetary loss for the nation. Politically, communal conflict weakens democracy. It allows politicians to use religion as a means to acquire positions of prominence for their vested interests.

Also, on the international front, communal conflict affects India’s image adversely and weakens it considerably. Religious antagonism has posed a serious challenge to national integration in India. People belonging to different religions feel that their religion is superior; this is a problem of enhanced ethnocentrism.

Political manipulation is often known to project one religion against the other which has resulted in communal riots, mutual distrust, and disintegration. Large-scale illiteracy and superstitions are responsible, along with other causes for the rise of communal violence and divisive tendencies in the country. Religious fundamentalism can lead to acts of terrorism which can create a fear psychosis in the minds of people. Communalism is a severe threat to the harmony and secular spirit of a country.

Example: Incidence of communal riots. The Ram Mandir -Babari Masjid issue in the year 1990, Mumbai riots in 1992 & Godhra riots in 2002, the partition riots of 1947 – the worst incident of Hindu Muslim conflict in the history of India.

Communalism refers mainly to loyalty to one’s own religion before the nation.

Critical description of parliamentary form of government: 

On the following bases, the criticism of parliamentary government can be done: 

1. This governance system is against the “Principle of separation of powers.” In this, the executive becomes free – willing. 

2. In this form of government, political parties attach less importance to the national interest and more to party interest, because of which, national interests suffer. 

3. There is a fear of autocracy in this government. 

4. Because of the tenure of the government being dependent on the desire of the legislature, this system of governance is weak. 

5. In the event of no political party getting majority in multi-party arrangement in this government, there may appear differences in coalition government causing a situation of political instability. 

6. Because of delay in decision – making in emergency situations, this government is inappropriate. 

7. In this type of governance, the party having majority in the parliament forms government. If any party has sweeping majority, it may have a nature of autocracy. 

8. In this type of government, the power of governance, sometimes, goes in the hands of incompetent persons. 

9. In this type of government, because of being multi-engaged, ministers do not pay the required attention to the governance – related works.

Conflict based on caste is called casteism.