Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

4  July  1776.

The answer is (c) basic

• Teeth will be acidic in nature because of bacterial activity in mouth. 
• To neutralize the acid toothpaste will be neutral in nature

(i) Iodine is needed to protect us from thyroid disorders. 

(ii) Fluoride protects our gums and prevents tooth decay. 

(iii) Soap is a good cleansing agent & is 100% biodegradable. As a result, it does not cause any pollution problem. However, soaps have two disadvantages. Firstly, they cannot be used in hard water. Secondly, they cannot be used in acidic solution. However, the detergents have one disadvantage that they are not completely biodegradable and hence cause water pollution. 

(iv) Earlier, tetraethyl lead was added to petrol by the oil companies to act as anti-knocking agent. But on decomposition, it produces lead which is poisonous. Hence, its use has been stopped. Quality of petrol has been improved by other methods.

Correct Answer is: (c) Louis XVI

3 December 1783.

In 1774, Louis XVI became the king of France.

• Social inequality,
• Corruption in life in the Church.

Louis XVI was the French ruler during the French Revolution.

The features of French constitution in 1791 were the following : 

• A written constitution was made on the basis of people’s wishes. 
• France was declared a constitutional monarchy by this.
• The powers of the king were restricted. His role now became symbolic only. He was made a salaried official. 
• The National Assembly was given the right to make laws. 
• The power of the people was made paramount and the principle of sovereignty of people was implemented. 
• The principle of segregation of power given by Montesque was implemented. The powers of governance were divided into legislature, executive and judiciary.

14 July has special importance in the nistory of France. On this day, the French revolutionaries stormed and occupied the Bastille fort. Bastille was a very ancient French fort, in which political prisoness were kept. This fort was seen as a symbol of the autocracy and cruelty of the French rulers. On 12 July 1789, a young lawyer, Casmiie Desmola, gave a rousing speech in Paris and inspired the people to take up arms, which made the crowds in Paris violent. On 14 July 1789, this agitated mob attacked the Bastille fort and freed the prisoners kept there. This fort had been witness to cruelty on people. The fall of this fort was the end of a politically unrestricted rule. It was an important and unique incident in world history. In France, it was the victory of democracy and defeat of autocracy.

Napoleon established the bank of France in 1800 AD.

• Voltaire 
• Rousseau 
• Didero 
• Montesque

(b) Louis XVI

The rise of Napoleon in France was a result of those circumstances which emerged during the period of the French Revolution. Napoleon, in accordance with the sentiments that were born in the French Revolution, made several educational reforms. He divided education into primary, secondary and higher sections. He separated religion from education. The church and clergy were put under the authority of the state. He gave equal opportunity to all, respected talent and provided equality in employment.

The principle of equality before the law was enforced. Napoleon formulated the law code and included the best laws in it. However, Napoleon adopted an imperialist policy and ignored the principles of sovereignty of the people and democratic tenets. He took away the political rights of the people of France. He spent the money earned by the toil of people in luxuries, gave privileges to his suporters and his kin. On the basis of these facts, it can be said that Napoleon’s statement ‘I am the Revolution and I have ended the Revolution’ is not completely true and relevant.

The American War of Independence was the most influential event to have affected the world in the 18^th Century. America was declared independent on July 4, 1776. While considering the form of American war of independence, it becomes clear that it was not a revolt against any feudal system, poverty or economic exploitation. Instead, it was a struggle for the natural right of man’s inherent freedom. The American people, taking England’s ruling policies to be an assault on their freedom, came together, revolted and got success. Economic and commercial reasons were also behind the declaration of independence. The trader class and the middle class also actively participated in this struggle.

According to Carl. L. Baker, this revolution was a conflict between the economic interests of the colonies and Britain.

(d) All of these

The French society was divided into three classes before the revolution of 1789. 

• Clergy class : This class included the high officials of the clergy. They enjoyed many privileges, and did not have to pay any taxes. The people of this class were rich and lived a luxurious life. 
• Elite class : This class included high officials of state and big landlords. They too enjoyed special privileges. They took feudal taxes from the farmers. Not only this, these people also possessed their own territories.
• Middle class : This class included farmers, artisans, petty officials, workers, lawyers, teachers and small traders. These people were overburdened with taxes. Unpaid labour was exacted from them. This was the most dissatisfied class of France. Farmers constituted the largest part of this class. The class was deprived of rights. This class contributed substantially to the explosion of the revolution.

This was the third Parliament of revolutionry France. In its tenure, monarchy was abolished and democracy was established on 21 September, 1793.

Jacobian Party.

The Church’s property was handed over to the farmers in France.

• Abolition of Feudal system 
• rise of Nationalism.

The wishes of the citizens.

The Battle of Trafalgar took place on 21 October, 1805. In this battle the Naval commander of the British fleet, Nelson defeated Napoleon in a naval battle.

Between Napoleon III and Cavour.

Guiseppe Garibaldi was bom in 1807 in the city of Nice.

Correct Answer is : (a) Bismarck

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on 15 August 1769 on the Island of Corsica. His father’s name was Carlo Conaparte and his mother was Laetatia Remalino. Nepoleon took advantage of the political and economic instability in France and with the army’s help, he took control of the rule. He declared himself emperor of France in 1804. He defeated many neighbouring countries and removed old dynasties to form new empires, he made many educational reforms and formulated a law code in France. His Moscow campaign weakened his power. He was badly defeated in the battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was imprisoned on St Helena Island where he died on 5 May 1821.

(d) All of these

The major republican political parties formed during French Revolution were the following :

Zirondist Party: Most of the leaders of this party were natives of Zirond provincs of France. The leaders of this party were idealist, republican and enthusiastic, but they locked experience and were impractical. In 1791, in spite of obtaining a majority in the administration, this party was defeated by the Jacobian Party. The main leaders of this party were Brisson and Madam Roland.

Jacobean Party : The members of this party were extreme republicans and more practical. This party established the rule of terror to protect the republic. The major centre of this party was Paris. This party aimed at establishing the republic of good qualities in France. The main leaders of this party were Dante, Robbespierre, Members of the Jacobian Party Haber and Mara etc.

There was a dynastic, autocratic rule in France. The king here enjoyed unrestricted powers and claimed divine rights, he was seen as a god. The king’s wish was the law, the infringement of which was a punishable offence. The king’s order were the basis of taxation and treasury expenditure.

‘Lettre de Cache’ was a sanction document, by which the king could order the arrest of any person. Thus, the common man remained in terror, his liberty was not secured. Louis XIV further strengthened his autocracy. He claimed, “I am the state.” This statement was a symbol of absolute autocracy. These elements created the basis of the French revolution.

(A) Capitalistic

The main reasons for the advent of Europeans in America were as follows :

Propagation of Western Civilisation and Culture : The possibility of converting the people of outer world to Christianity inspired the people of Europe to take to the seas. Spain and Portugal were the countries most influenced by such feelings.

Discovery of precious metals and spices : The victory and occupation of Constantinople by Turks in 1453 caused European trade to decline, and they had to pay more taxes. In addition, the reserves of gold and silver were getting low in Europe. In order to obtain more and more gold, the Europeans were inspired to search for new sea routes.

Aspiration to obtain Political Rights : The political power in Europe lay in the hands of the elite and clergy classes. The other class i. e. the middle class was deprived of political benefits and rights. Disillusioned by the rule in their countries, they were attempting to reach America, where they could establish their own reign.

Expansionist and Colonial Sentiments : Having control over more and more lands and colonising them began to be seen as a symbol of nationalism. This was a sign of prestige among European countries. The rise of cities and industrialisation sped up the process of colonisation. These colonies could become a market for sourcing of raw material and selling of finished products. This is the reason why instead of India, incidentally, America was discovered.

Atrocities of Church : The atrocities and religious persecution at the hand the Church compelled the people of Europe to go to other lands. The Britishers who founded the colony of Plymouth near Massachussets came there in hope of religious freedom. Bloody Wars : Some people were oppressed with the bloody wars between European countries. To get away from these, these people went to America in search of a safe place to live.

Population increase and problem of Rehabilitation of Criminals : Slavery and trading of slaves were prevalent in Europe at those times. Slaves were sold to fight in wars. To escape from this, they began to leave their country to go to America. It was also necesary to find new lands to resettle the growing population and the criminals so that in addition to solving this problem, their economic objectives could also be fulfilled. Banishment from the country was a prevalent punishment at that time. Thus, some people went to America because of this law.

New Awareness about Geography : The book ‘Geography’ written by Ptolemy proved to be a milestone in increasing the people’s awareness about geographical facts. He told Europeans for the first time that the world is round. This mystery inspired brave adventurers to go on vogages.

The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed between France and Prussia on 10 May, 1871. 

Its major outcomes were as follows:

• This treaty completed the unification of Germany and a powerful nation emerged under the leadership of Prussia. 
• This treaty made France handover territories of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany after the war. 
• The insulting provisions of the treaty towards France laid the foundation of the First World War. 
• The ‘Blood and Iron’ policy of Bismarck made a fatal attack on liberalism. 
• A war indemnity of 20 crore was put on France. The German army was to stay in France till the payment of the indemnity, whose expense was to be borne by France. This was an insult to France. 
• After the war, Italy took control over Rome. Alongwith Germany, the unification of Italy was also completed.

Mazzini was a great revolutionary leader. He was bom in Geneva in 1805. He became a member of a secret organsation ‘Carbonneir’. In 1831, he founded the organisation named ‘Young Italy. He wanted to exclude Austria from Italy and unify Italy as an integrated republican state. Mazzini’s organisation, ‘Young Italy had three slogans : believe in God, brother become one, and free Italy. Mazzini is considered to be the mind of Itaiys unification, spiritual power, and the soul of Itaiys unification. Through his organisation, he instilled the sentiment of patriotism, struggle, sacrifice, martyrdom and freedom. He was a nurturer of republican principles and revolutionary methods. In this way, Mazzini’s contribution to Italy’s unification was incomparable.

Guiseppe Garibaldi was the most famous freedom fighter of Italy. He was bom in the town of Nice in 1807. His father was an officer on a merchant ship. He was sentenced to death for a naval mutiny. At that time, Garibaldi went to America. He received training in guerilla warfare there. He formed a patriotic group named the ‘Red Coats’. In 1860, the Sicilian people revolted against the autocratic rulers of the Bumo dynasty and invited Garibaldi to lead the revolt. Garibaldi established control over Sicily in June 1860. Garibaldi declared Victor Emmanuel as the ruler of the annexed territories.

A pact was made between French emperor Npoleon III and Cavour at a place called Plombiers near Sardinia, on 21 July, 1858. 

The main features of the pact were the following :

• In the event of a war between Sardinia and Austria, France would give military assistance to Sardinia. ‘ 
• In return of military help, Sardinia would cede the territories of Nice and Savoy to France. 
• Lombardy and Venetia would be given to Sardinia, after the defeat of Austria. 
• Naples, Sicily and the Papal states would remain as such. 
• Calathide, the daughter of Victor Emmanuel, would be married to Jerome Napoleon, the paternal cousin of Napoleon III. 
• Palarma, Modena and Tuscany would combine to form a new state on which Napoleon Ill’s cousin Jerome Napoleon would rule.

The main reasons of British defeat in the American war of independence were the following:

Long distance between England and America : There was a distance of thousands of kilometres between England and America. In addition to this, the British soldiers were not familiar with the geographical condition of America. On the other hand, the navies of Spain, France and Holland stopped England from sending crucial military equipment to America on high seas. In this way, the American army got assistance from France, Spain and Holland together which proved beneficial for it.

Lack of enthusiasm among British soldiers : The British soldiers had to fight against their common caste brethren living in America. Thus, they lacked enthusiasm. On the other hand, the American people were committed to sacrifice everything in order to come out victorious in their struggle to obtain their political, economic and social rights.

Most soldiers in British Army were mercenaries : Most of the soldiers in British army were mercenaries which they had rented from Germany. They had no interest in victory and were only interested in getting their contractual money. Because of this, they could not stand against the American volunteers who were full of patriotism.

The oppressive policy of George III: The oppressive policy of George III also proved helpful to America. People were angry with England. And the British soldiers squandered away opportunities of victory deliberately. The situation was so bad that the British war minister Lord German sometimes read the messages and letters sent back from the battlefield. On the other hand, George Washington proved himself to be an able army commander.

Large extent of field of struggle in America : America was a large country with the view point of area. The battlefields there were spread out in a large area which was a clear disadvantage to the British army. It became very difficult for them to fight on every battlefront.

British Political events favoured America : American people observed everyday political events of Britain closely. England’s deteriorating relations with various European nations proved beneficial for America. France, Spain and Holland gave help to America.

The capable leadership of America : The American freedom movement received the leadership of capable leaders like George Washington and AbrahaiH Lincoln, which helped America and became a nightmare for England.

The dedication of american patriots : The American people were fed up with the violation of human rights. They formed an army of patriotic volunteers who sacrificed their all and played a crucial role in getting freedom from British rule.

The effect of the American Freedom Struggle on the World was as follows :

• The rise of Nation and Written Constitution : United States of America emerged as a powerful democratic nation after the Treaty of Paris. The states were given internal autonomy on basis of the written constitution and the federal system of governance was implemented. Thie principle of the will of the citizens, adult franchise and equality was accepted in the country. 
• Spread of the Feeling of Nationalism : The dare call of nationalism that was given by the nationalists of America in the 18th Centuiy, showed its effect on the entire world in the 19th century. It began with the French Revolution in 1789, and by 1848, this feeling spread out to Germany, Italy, Ireland, Austria and Greece. 
• Inspiration to the French Revolution : The French soldiers who returned from America, spread the feeling of freedom and dedication to the nation, in the French society. The French principles of liberty, equality and fraternity were manifest in the American Revolution. The economically oppressed and exploited French people also wanted to be independent like America. 
• Increased facilities to Ireland : Ireland was also inspired by the success of American struggle. It also rose in revolt against England. The British considered the demands of the Irish people sympathetically and freed the parliamentary system there to function independently. 
• The Birth of British Commonwealth : The victory of the American people inspired other colonial countries to fight against British rule. As a result. England changed its policies for its colonies and formed the British Commonwealth. England created a platform to know and understand the problems of colonial countries so that the incidents that happened in the American struggle were not repeated. 
• Enhancement in the Powers of the Parliament : George Ill’s incompetence was proved in England’s defeat in America. The Parliament held Prime Minister Lord North and King George III responsible for this. Now the authority of the king was reined in and Parliamentary powers were increased. 
• End of Commercial Imperialism : England was forced to abandon its policy of commercial imperialism due to the American Freedom struggle. Under this policy, less imports and more exports were given importance. 
• Religious Freedom : After the American freedom struggle, education was separated from the rituals of worship, and religion was segregated from the state and given an individual status. Every person was given the right to worship.

In this way, American freedom struggle became a message for the liberation of mankind from colonial slavery. A modem era began with the American freedom straggle.

The faulty political system of France was certainly responsible for the French revolution. 

These faults can be understood under the following points :

1. Centralised rule and Autocratic regime : An autocratic, dynastic rule prevailed in France. The monarchy enjoyed unrestricted power and divine sanction. The king was seen as a manifestation of God. The King’s dictat was the basis for taxation and treasury expenditure. The king could arrest anyone and punish him through a sanction letter called ‘Letrre de Cache’. Thus, the common man in France was terrified. A person’s freedom was not secure. Louis XII increased this oppression.

2. Incapable rulers : The French ruler Louis XV was a pleasure loving and incapable ruler. Instead of making improvements in his regime, he spent all his time on pleasure pursuits. Louis XVI was also an incapable ruler who was an indolent, pleasure loving and foolish person. He was unaware of the pitable condition of France under the influence of his wife and courtiers.

3. Corruption in the judiciary : The Judicial system of France was faulty, unorganised, expensive, unjust and corrupt. The king’s dictats were the law. In the way that language changes every 5-8 miles, French laws changed very frequently. The king had such a sanction document by which he could arrest and punish anyone, anytime. The penal system was the most cruel one. No judicial remedy existed. In such political disarray, how long could the people of France live in subjugation! Thus, a revolt against this system became unavoidable.

4. Extravagant regime : The kings of France used to spend most of their time in the palaces of Versailles, for away from Paris. These palaces had thousands of servants who served to fulfill the king luxurious, pleasure seeking needs. The money spent on them was very large. France condition became so bad that the income of the state was less than its expenditure. As a result, due to levying of extra taxes, the common man was oppressed, and this became a cause for the revolution.

5. Incapable representative assembly : There was a representative assembly named ‘Estates Generale’ in France,which included the elite class, clergy class, intellectual class and common citizens. This assembly was dominated by the elite, clergy and intellectual classes. It war unable to decide in favour of the common citizens. No other convention was called after 1614 AD. There was no one to listen to the common man. In this way, the faulty political system of France created the background for the French Revolution.

The French soldiers had gone to fight against the British in the American war of independence. They were deeply influenced with the freedom, love for liberty and self-respecting lifestyle of the American people. Feelings of patriotism and liberty were awakened in the French soldiers. The soldiers and officers who returned from America, propagated the ideals of freedom, and dedication to the motherland of the American people in French society. They became aware of the political, religious and social rights of people. They began to demand these rights in France itself. Thus, despite the American revolution being of a different form it became an inspiration for the French revolution.

(b) 5 March 1770

• The Boston Port was to be closed till the destroyed tea was compensated with its cost, so that the traders of Boston would not suffer loss. 
• The responsibility for accommodating and feeding the British soldiers was put on local authorities. 
• The murder trials conducted in American courts were now to be conducted in other British colonies. 
• The followers of the Catholic faith were given the freedom of worship. 
• The king was given the right to elect the legislators from Mass achussets.

The main reasons of the American revolution were the following 

1. Lack of sympathy and goodwill towards England : Due to religious persecution in England or due to banishment for crime, the Britishers who came to America, and also the other Europeans who came to America had no affection or goodwill towards England.

2. Rise of Intellectual Awakening : The continual progress of education, literature and journalism awakened a feeling of existentialism in the people of America. Thomas Paine spread the feeling of love towards country through his book ‘Common Sense’. Benjamin Franklin founded the American philosophical society where exchagne of new ideas and discussion meets were held. James Ottisi, Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams contributed greatly towards the development of intellectual awakening. Education and journalism also played on important role in increasing intellectual awakening. Harrard college was founded in 1636. The newspaper named ‘Boston Newsletter’ was published in 1704. The gradual development in fields of knowledge and science also inspired the feeling of nationalism.

3. Effects of Seven-year War : The seven-year war for Colonial supremacy between England and France ended in 1763 with the victory of England. The French occupation and influence ended in America. All American French colonies came under England’s control. There was a majority of French Catholic and native Red Indians. Tension prevailed since the very beginning between Red Indians and Britishers. Thus, some reserved areas were given to the natives. Due to this the expansion of area, colonialism stopped there.

4. Tensions between Governor and local legislative Assembly : The conduct of the regime of colonies was done by the executive council constituted by the governor. Both of them were answerable to the British emperor, but the assembly of local people opposed their interference. As a result, there existed tension between them both.

5. The Faulty economic policies and regulations of Gerge III : Emperor George Ill’s Prime Minister Granville, concluded in 1763 that in comparison to the expenditure incurred in America, the income generated from there was less. Thus, he made new plans for American administration in which implementation of direct taxes, stopping smuggling trade and maintaining a permanent army in America were included. Granville made laws to implement direct taxation in America, in which the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Currency Act, Quartering Act and Tea taxation were the major ones. The above taxation caused Americans not to keep quiet. They argued that the British Parliament had no right to impose taxes on the American people.

6. Demeaning Behaviour towards the Americans : The British officials, soldiers and officers posted in different parts of America considered themselves superior to native Americans, and behaved rudely with them. In the British territory located in America, almost 70 percent American soldiers were treated like animals by British officers. These dissatisfied soldiers served as trained soldiers in the struggle for independence in the American army. It can be said conclusively that these reasons lent impetus to American struggle for independence.

(B) Socialism

• The workers were under the control of unsympathetic foreman and managers. 
• There was no security for their lives and they lost their jobs. Working hours were long and unbroken. 
• Wages were meagre and frequently owners tried to cut down wages or retrench workers or increase work load on them. 
• The lifespan of the workers decreased. 
• Workers were prone to accidents and no compensations were given. 
• Workers used to live in slums and deaths were caused by spread of diseases. 
• Children were taken as child labour in risky coal mines.

Present condition of workers : 

• Salaries or wages are regularized. 
• Factory regulation act prohibited children in coal mines. Later child labour is now prohibited. 
• Working conditions are improved. 
• Compensations are paid for accidents or deaths but it is very less.

There was a fierce reaction in the various colonies of America, in opposition to the Townshed laws. Under the Billeting Act of 1767, the New York assembly was dissolved because arrangements were not made for the accommodation and food for British soldiers. This issue caused tension between British soldiers and the American people. The situation became violent in Boston. In army artillery attack on 5 March 1770, three American citizens were killed. The American people called it the Boston masssacre and the incident was condemned everywhere. This massacre ended the Townshed taxes.’The Boston massacre was publicised widely in America. Anti-British meetings were held, and this gave impetus to the American freedom struggle.

D) General Ned Ludd

A) Saint Simon

A) Prevented the import of cheaper food

Russian Revolution was the source of great inspiration for Indian nationalists.