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The caste system can be understood as the combination of two sets of principles, one based on difference and separation and the other on wholism and hierarchy. Each caste is different and strictly separated from every other caste on the basis of restrictions. These restrictions are related to marriage, food sharing and social interaction to occupation. 

Different and separated castes do not have an individual existence. They exist in relation to a larger whole. This societal whole or system is a hierarchical rather than egalitarian system. Each individual caste follows an ordered rank—a particular position in a ladder like arrangement going from highest to lowest. 

The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between purity and pollution. Castes that are considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure or impure have low status. 

Historians believe that those who were defeated in wars were often assigned low caste status. Castes are not only unequal in ritual terms. They are complementary and non competing groups. It means each caste has its own place in the system which cannot be taken by any other caste. 

Caste is also linked with occupation, the system functions as a social division of labour. It allows no mobility.This idea of separation and hierarchy has inculcated discrimination, inequality and prejudices in Indian society.

Correct option: (d) Umaji Naik

Correct option: (a) Chitur Singh

The great epic of Mesopotamia is ‘Gilgamesh’.

Correct option: (a) Gadkari

Correct option: (b) Lord Dalhousie

• The First World War had put the British in a difficult situation.
• Lokmanya Tilak proposed that it was the right time for Indians to take advantage of the situation resulted because of the war and ask for independence.
• The Governor of Bombay called a meeting of Indian leaders for help.
• Lokmanya Tilak in very clear terms told the British that the Indian soldiers would be sent to fight if only, the British Government promise ‘Swaraj’.
• This policy of Lokmanya Tilak is known as ‘Responsive Co-operation’.

Correct option: (a) indigo

Correct option: (b) Nanded

In 1942, in some parts of India, people were successful in uprooting British Governance. In Midnapur District (Bengal), Balia(U.P), and Bhagalpur, Purnia (Bihar) near Azamgarh the British officers were forced to leave their offices people took charge of the governance at these places. Krantisinha Nana Patil a revolutionist established Pratisarkar (Parallel government) in the Satara district of Maharashtra. He established ‘People’s Government’.

The islands were conquered by Azad Hind Sena from the British in 1943 Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Incorrect pair is:

Kunwar Singh – Patna

(b) to acquaint the British citizens in England with the conditions in British India

The region of the regime of the parallel government established in 1942 Satara District.

Correct answer is a) Jan Breman

Correct answer is d) All the above

• Indian rural society is totally dependent on agriculture. It is the only source of their livelihood. Unfortunately it is unevenly distributed, not organised and many people of ruralSociety are landless. 

• Indian rural society has patrilineal kinship system. According to legal system women are supposed to have an equal right of family property but actually it is simply on papers. Because of male dominance, they are deprived of their rights. •Most of the people in villages are landless and for their livelihood they become agriculture workers. They are paid below the statutory minimum wages. Their job is not regular and employment is insecure. Mostly these agriculture workers work on daily wages. 

• The tenants also have lower income because they have to pay a large amount of production to the landowner. 

• The ownership of land or its total area determines the position of the farmers upward or downward mobility in his socio-economic system. Therefore the agrarian society can be understood in terms of its class structure which is structured through Caste system. Although this is not always true. In rural society Brahmins are the dominant caste but they are not main landowners so they are part of rural society but fall outside the agrarian structure.These questions are based on Self-Study. Students should do them solves.

Measures to protect the right of Landless: 

• Abolition of bonded labour legally: Bandhua mazdoor (bonded labourers) practice in U.P and Bihar, Halpati System in Gujarat and Jeeta System in Karnataka has been legally abolished by Government of India. 

• Abolition of Zamindari System: The intermediaries between the peasants and the state were Change and Development in RuralSociety the Zamindars. The state very effectively and intensively passed legislation and this system was abolished. 

• Abolition and regulation act for Tenancy: These laws discouraged tenancy or ‘Batai’ system. In West Bengal and Kerala, where CPI systems government was in power the tenants got the land rights.

• Imposition of Land Ceilling Act
• According to this act the upper limit of land for an owner is being fixed. Because of this act to identify surplus land and redistribute among the landless became programme of the state. Binoba Bhave’s Bhoodan yojna instructed this legislation but there are many shortcomings in this act and should be taken care of. 
• To improve the condition of landless people living in villages the state should take appropriate measures and this whole sector should be organised. 
• The economic conditions of villages should be improved by the state. Villages should be well connected to the ties, job opportunities should be creaked in the villages. Education and health facilities as well as entertainment facilities should be developed in the villages to discourage migration. MANREGA is an effective measure in this duration. 
• Consolidation of Land: Landowner farmers are given one or two bigger piece of land in lieu of their several scattered small fields. It may be done as voluntary consolidation or as compulsory consolidation. This can bring about lot of efficiencies in agriculture process as a farmer.

Correct option: (c) Kesari

• Prati Sarkar or Parallel Government was established by Krantisinha Nana Patil, a revolutionist in the Satara district of Maharashtra.
• He, with the help of his associates, put an end to the British regime in the Satara district and established ‘People’s Government’.
• This government took over the administrative task of collecting revenue, maintaining law and order, solving court cases, and punishing criminals.

(A) Kayamdhara or Jamindari:

• This system was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793.
• It was introduced in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, and Varanasi.
• Zamindars were recognized as the owners of the lands.
• Zamindars were given the right to collect rent from the peasants.

(B) Ryotwari:

• The Ryotwari system was a land revenue system in British India introduced by Thomas Munro in 1820 based on a system administered by Captain Alexander Read in the Baramahal district.
• This was practiced in Madras and Bombay areas as well as Assam and Coorg provinces.
• In this system, the peasants or cultivators were regarded as the owners of the land.
• Ryot means peasant cultivator.

(C) Mahalwari system:

• The government of Lord William Bentinck Governor-General of India (1828-1835) introduced the Mahalwari system of land revenue in 1833.
• This system was introduced in N W Frontier, Agra, Gangetic Valley, Central Provinces, Punjab, etc.
• Had elements of both the Zamindari and the Ryotwari systems.
• This system divided the lands into Mahals. Sometimes the Mahals constituted one or more villages.
• The tax was assessed on the Mahal.
• Each individual farmer gave his share.
• Revenue was collected by the village headman or village leaders (Lambardar).

(D) Anewari System:

• Paisewari (originally known as Anewari) is a system of survey used by the government to decide whether a village is drought-hit or not
• Prior to the harvest, the Tehsildar along with farmers and representatives of the agricultural department takes stock of the crop and compares it with the yield of the last ten years
• If the value is less than 50 paise, the village is declared drought-hit, and drought mitigating measures are put in place.

• ‘Maza Pravas’ translates into English as “My Travels: The story of 1857 Mutiny” is a Marathi travelogue written by Vishnubhat Godse, who traveled on foot from Varsai, a village near Pen (present-day Maharashtra) to the Central and Northern parts of India during 1857-1858 and witnessed several incidents of what he calls “The Mutiny of 1857” also known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
• During his travel, he witnessed the events at Mhow, worked for the Rani of Jhansi for a few months, visited Ayodhya, eventually returning penniless to his village.
• Apart from his encounters with the mutiny he also visited most of the Hindu holy places.

Correct option: (a) 1884

Incorrect pair is:

George Thompson – Bengal British India Society

Incorrect pair is:

Rowlatt Act – 1919

Correct Answer is: (a) Dwarika

Mirabai was a Rajput princess married into the ruling family of Mewar (Udaipur). A devotes of Lord Krishna since childhood, she continued to devote her whole time to the Lord’s worship even after her marriage. She, in her devotional songs says, “People say, Mira has gone mad. I have myself become the eternal maid-servant of my Narayana.” Her message was: “There is but one means to experience Lord’s Divine Presnce—that is Bhakti.”

(a) Great Bath:It is one of the largest public-buildings of Mohenjo-daro, measuring 108 x 180 feet with a bathing pool 39 feet long and 28 feet wide and 8 feet deep with two organisation of steps on the north and south sides. The water was provided by a well in an adjacent room. There were portico and rooms and a stairway leading to an upper story, which are supposed to be used for some priesthood or changing the clothes. It might be used for a ritual bath. 

(b) Granaries:s These measured 45.71 meters in length and 15.23 meters in breadth in Mohenjo-daro. In Harappa, there were two rows of six granaries, each measuring 15.23 x 6.09 meters with adjoining working floors meant for threshing grains, as wheat and barley have been found in the crevices of the floors. There were barracks for accommodating laborers.

Under Lord Curzon in 1901, Sir John Marshall, the Director General of Archaeological Survey of India, revealed the Harappan Civilisation near Harappa in Punjab. In 1921, Dayaram Sahni, an officer in the Archaeological. Survey of India got ruins dug out, around Harappa. In 1922, R.D. Banerjee along with a Buddhist monk found the city of Mohenjo-daro under a mound. Later, Sir John Marshall ordered large-scale excavations.

(a) The Great Bath: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a massive structure which throws light on the life of the people and culture of the Harappan Civilisation : 

1. The construction of the Great Bath indicates that the art of building had reached a high degree of perfection at that time. 

2. The massive structure points out that there might have existed a ruling class that could mobilize labour, collect taxes and build such a huge structure for the public. 

3. Most of the scholars agree that the Great Bath might have been used for religious purposes. This indicates the importance attached to ceremonial bathing in sacred tanks, pools and rivers since time immemorial.The design of the Great Bath portrays the efficient planning in the structural features relating to water supply and sewage disposal. 

(b) Cemeteries: Cemeteries throw light on the burial practices of the people. The burial practices and the objects found in the graves reveal many aspect like their religious beliefs, customs, economic position, social hierarchy and whether the people died due to an invasion or a natural calamity. 

(c) Script: The Harappans used a script which is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds, fish and varieties of the human form. The number of signs of Harappan script is known to be between 375 and 400. The script is found inscribed on a number of seals, copper tools, rims of jars, copper and terra-cotta tablets, jewelry and on an ancient signboard

Correct option is: (c) broad

Before the colonial rule, the people who did agriculture were members of the Upper Castes. But they were not owners of the land. The land was in the control of regional kings and zamindars. The zamindars. who were politically strong, were Kshatriyas of such higher caste people. Zamindars were not owners of the land. Their duty was to collect the tax and give it to the government. They got a shore of the tax they collected.

These zamindars collected a got part of the harvest as tax from the farmers. When the British colonized India, they ruled many parts through zamindars. With the intention of maximizing their income, the British brought new land tax systems and reforms. The most important of them were the Zamindari system (Permanent Settlement) and the Ryotwari system. The Zamindars had to pay huge amounts to the government.

So they started collecting big amounts from farmers. The zamindari system was harmful to both zamindars and farmers. As a result agriculture got stunted and ruined. Many farmers left their homes as they could not stand the torments from zamindars. Constant famines, earthquakes, and wars reduced the population considerably.

The British implemented the zamindari system in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. In the regions which they were directly ruling, they brought another land tax system. This is known as ryotwari system. ‘Ryot’ in Telugu means farmer. It was an agreement between the British government and the farmer. There were no middlemen. Farmers gave the tax directly to the government. As per the ryotwari system, the farmers became the owners of the land.

In the ryotwari regions, the tax was comparatively less. So the farmers were ready to invest money in their lands. There was much progress and prosperity in these regions. To know about the present agricultural structure we should know the background of land tax system in the colonial rule. The present system came from the changes that were brought during the colonial period.

After independence, the Nehru government started a planned development process. The stress was on agricultural reforms and industrialization. The condition of agriculture in India at that time was pitiable. The country depended on imported foodstuff. People in the villages were in poverty. In the circumstances, the government felt the need to reform the agricultural sector. It realized that there should be drastic changes in the ownership of the land and its distribution. To bring these changes there was a series of land reform bills. The reforms were carried. out at the Centre and in the States.

The first important land reform law was to end the zamindari system. With this, the middlemen between the government and the farmers were ceased to exist. The ownership of the land by zamindars was canceled. The land of the zamindars was taken from them and it was distributed to the farmers who farmed it. With this, the power of zamindars weakened. It improved the condition of the real farmers.

Although zamindari system was ended by this law, landlord-ship, tenancy, sharecropping, etc. did not end. In the agricultural sector, there were many layers and zamindars were the top layer. The top layer was removed but other layers remained. The second series of land reforms tried to end tenancy system. It made a condition that till the tenant paid the rent, he could not be ousted from the land. This law could offer some kind of protection to the tenants. The rent to be given to the landlord was also reduced by this law.

But in many States, this law was not properly implemented. Since the tenants were not given any written documents, the law proved useless in many cases. Only in Wet Bengal and Kerala, the law was effectively implemented. These States were able to restructure the agricultural system by giving the tenants the right to their land. The third land reform law related the maximum land a family could own. The limit for maximum land would depend on each region. For example, in Assam, it could be 50 acres but in Bengal, it might be only 25 acres. The ceiling was determined according to the type of land and fertility of soil.

If the land was well- productive and fertile, the land area one could retain would be smaller than less productive and infertile land. The extra land taken from the families would be taken and distributed among the landless poor. But all this did not happen as planned. Landowners used different techniques to keep their land by using various loopholes of the law Many landowners escaped from the law by giving away their extra lands to their relatives.

Even their servants were given land. Thus they were able to keep control of their land. To escape from the land ceiling laws, in some regions, rich landowners and farmers officially divorced their wives, although they lived together. This way they could keep the land by giving a share to the wives. The efficacy of the land reform laws was not similar in all States. It is true that some changes did happen. But there was hardly any big difference in the inequality prevailing in the agricultural sector. It affected the production of agricultural goods. The land reform laws are important in India. Such reforms will remove the poverty i villages and bring social justice.

It was planned to begin the revolt against the East India Company across the nation on 31^st May, 1857 C.E. Leaders like Nanasaheb Peshwa, Moghul Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, Kunwarsingh, Shah of Avadh (Ayodhya) joined hands with Tatya Tope, an efficient military commander, Rango Bapuji, an accomplished planner and Azimullah Khan, a lawyer and journalist, Laxmibai the Queen of Jhansi, etc. were the main leaders of the 1857 revolt.

Mangal Pandey, a soldier of Barrackpore battalion, opposed to use the cow-and-pig-fat greased cartridge of the new Enfield Rifle. As a result the revolt began earlier than the fixed date. That is it started on 10^th May instead of 31^st May. This disrupted the planning and the objectives of the revolt could not be achieved.

Mangal Pandey was arrested, tried and sentenced to death.

1. Nagpur, Satara, Jabalpur, Jhansi, Karachi etc.

2. Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Delhi, Agra etc.

3. Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal.

4. The Lakshadweep Islands are located in the Arabian Sea.

Correct option: (d) All of the above reasons

Correct option: (b) Lakshmibai

(a) Champaranya Satyagraha (1917):

• After returning to India Gandhiji took up issues of farmers in Champaranya, Bihar in 1917.
• The British plant owners were pressing the farmers to cultivate only indigo. Not only that, they used to buy indigo at very low rates from the farmers.
• Gandhiji decided to protest against this exploitation and to relieve the farmers from their misery by doing satyagraha Gandhiji was successful in his efforts and the British banned the compulsion of cultivating indigo.

(b) Rowlatt Act (1919):

• The British Government formed a committee to suppress the national movement that was spreading rapidly.
• Sir Sydney Rowlatt, the British officer was the president of the committee.
• An act was passed in 1919 known as the Rowlatt Act by which the British Government had the authority to imprison any Indian without a warrant and to put them under trial without any inquiry.
• Mahatma Gandhiji decided to protest against this act through satyagraha.
• He appealed to all people to go for a mass protest on 6th April 1919 by closing down all daily transactions.

(c) Non Co-operation Movement (1920):

• In 1920, in the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, a resolution was passed to start the ‘Non-Cooperation Movement’ all over India.
• Mahatma Gandhiji was asked to lead the movement. It was decided to boycott all schools, colleges, legislative bodies, courts, government offices, and imported goods.
• Indian people responded to this call in a commendable way. Students participated in large numbers. Several lawyers stopped their practice and participated in the movement.
• Among them were C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru, M.R. Jaikar, and many other prominent figures.
• In many places clothes were publicly burnt. The farmers gave a tremendous response to Mahatma Gandhi’s appeal of Non-Co-operation. The working class also participated.
• A nationwide series of public strikes were started.
• ‘Charkha’ became the symbol of ‘Swarajya’ and ‘Swadeshi’ became a household term in India.

(d) Salt Satyagraha (1930):

• The British had levied a heavy tax on salt, an essential commodity in daily life. Mahatma Gandhi declared satyagraha to protest against this tax.
• On 12th March 1930, he began a march from his Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi on the Gujarat seacoast against this unjust tax.
• On 6th April on the sea coast at Dandi, he broke the British law of salt with a token act of collecting a handful of salt from there.

(e) Quit India Movement:

• On 8th August 1942, a resolution was passed in the INC session for the British to ‘Quit India’ and it was approved with a great majority. Under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, this movement took shape.
• This was the last important step in the struggle for India’s freedom. As a result, all the leaders clapped into jails.
• This agitation took a violent form and the British government perpetrated human atrocities on the people.
• But an awakening had taken place and the people were not prepared to remain under the British on any account.
• Mahatma Gandhi gave the mantra ‘Do or Die. His words created a new spirit among the Indians.

• Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Raj Guru, and Sukhdev established the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in 1928 in Delhi.
• Their goal was to free India from British exploitation.
• They wanted to rip off the British system that exploited the farmers and labourers.
• Their organization had an independent department known as the ‘Hindustan Socialist Republican Army’ for collecting arms and executing their plans.
• Chandrashekhar Azad was the chief of that organisation.
• The members of this organisation had completed several adventurous tasks for instance Bhagat Singh and Rajguru avenged the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, Saunders was killed to teach a lesson to British officers.

The British Commander-in-Chief who defeated Tatya Tope Sir Colin Campbell.

Venue of the first session of the Indian National Congress Mumbai.

(a) Head of provincial government was - governor. 

(b) He reported directly to the emperor. 

(c) Provinces (Subas) were divided into Sarkar. 

(d) Sarkars into parganas under - quanungo, chaudhary and qazi. 

(e) Each department was supported by official staff.

Following is the list of materials required for craft production in the Harappan Civilisation: Stone, clay, copper, tin, bronze, gold, faience, shell, camelian, jasper, crystal, steatite, quartz, timber. Some of the raw materials were locally available whereas some were purchased from the distant places. Soil and wood were locally available raw materials. Stones, fine quality wood, metals were procured from distant places

. Settlements of the Harappans were situated at such places where raw materials were easily available. Nageshwar and Balacot were famous for shell. Some places were famous for Lapis Lazuli like Shortughai in Afghanistan. Rajasthan and Gujarat were famous for copper. Lothal was famous for camelian.

 Another way of obtaining raw material was sending expeditions to different places

. Evidences show that expedition was sent to Khetri region of Rajasthan for copper and to South India for Gold. Through these expeditions local communities were contacted. Harappan evidences found at these places indicate contacts between each other

. Evidences found at Khetri region were given the name of Ganeshwar Jodhpura Culture by archaeologists. Huge reserves of copper products were found here. It is assumed that inhabitants of these area sent copper to Harappan people.

• The streets in Harappan towns were broad and laid out in a grid pattern. 
• The streets had covered drains on either sides.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar

Queen’s Proclamation

The freedom struggle of 1857 took place for the following reasons:

• The increasing discontent in the army was not just due to mounting pressures but also due to political, social, religious, and economic reasons.
• The treatment given to Indian soldiers and the restrictions imposed on them was the root cause of their discontent.
• The soldiers felt hurt because of many reasons such as cuts in their allowances, being compelled to cross the sea, frequent humiliation during the daily parade, partiality ruling large in matters of transfers, being left out during promotions, etc.

The British government refused to accept her adopted son as the rightful heir to the throne of Jhansi. Queen Laxmibai joined the revolt of 1857 C.E. to avenge this injustice.

Town planning: It is the most remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation. The Indus cities were set up on a grid-pattern, consisting of regular planning with divisions, alignment of streets, planning of the houses and public buildings with the provision of thoroughfares.

Queen Victoria of England issued a charter known as the ‘Queen’s Proclamation’ on 1st November 1858. 

The following were the main provisions of the charter:

• Lord Canning was appointed as the first viceroy and Governor-General of India.
• The Indian princes were assured that their territories would not be annexed and they were given the right to adopt sons. Thus, the Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn.
• The Indian princes were further assured that all the treaties which they had entered into with the East India Company would be honoured by the Crown.
• She further declared that all Indians were her subjects and no one would be discriminated on the basis of race, creed, caste and birthplace, employment on the basis of qualification and skills, no interference in religious matters, fulfillment of the agreements with the rulers of the princely states, etc.