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Scientific society was founded by Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan in Aligarh. It started to translate one book of science into Urdu language.

कवि दुखों से भरी रात में हिमकणों को दुख के आँसू कहता है। लेकिन अब प्रभात/ भोर हो चुकी है और शीतल मन्द सुगन्धित हवा अब चल पड़ी है।

उषा द्वारा, ओस बटोरने से आशय है कि उषा के आने पर दिन की गर्मी से ओस समाप्त हो जाती है। इसी प्रकार जागरण और सक्रियता से कष्ट दूर हो जाते हैं।

कवि ने प्रात:काल पृथ्वी पर फैले ओसकणों को दुख भरे आ है।

उस समय पूरे देशवासियों की नसों में आजादी की लहर दौड़ रही थी। बड़े-बूढे, जवानबच्चे, महिला-पुरुष सब, आजाद होने के लिए आंदोलन कर रहे थे। अंग्रेजों की लाठियाँ, गोलियाँ भी उन्हें रोकने में नाकाम थीं। अंग्रेजी सामानों का बहिष्कार किया जा रहा था। भारत छोड़ो के नारों से पूरा देश पूँज रहा था। आए दिन लोग जुलूस निकालते थे बड़े नेताओं के नेतृत्व में अंग्रेजों का अत्याचार भी अपनी चरम सीमा पर था। बेगुनाहों मासूमों सहित देश के बड़े-बड़े नेताओं की गिरफ्तारियाँ होती रहती । थीं। क्रांतिकारियों को आए दिन फाँसी की सजा दी जा रही थी। भारतवासी स्वतंत्रता प्राप्ति के लिए संघर्ष कर रहे थे और अंग्रेज उन्हें गुलाम बनाए रखने के लिए प्रताड़ित किए जा रहे थे।

The Indians found the new colonial cities as bewildering. They were surpassed the new transport facilities available here. The means of transport facilities which included horse- drawn carnages, tram11 and buses. Enabled the people to live at far away places from the city centre. Now they lived at some other places and served at some other places. 

Emergence of new public places: The new colonial cities far away place witnessed new public places such as the theatres, cinema-halls, gardens, public parks, etc. Besides these were clubs and Garden Houses. Functions: These newly created public places were very exciting. They were an important source of entertainment and helped increasing social interaction. The people were able to express their opinions on society and government. They could also question the practice of social customs.

In the past, buildings were at odds with the traditional Indian buildings. Gradually, Indians too got used to European architecture and made it their own. The British in turn adapted some Indian styles to suit their needs. One example is the bungalow which was used by government officers in Bombay. The colonial bungalow was set on extensive grounds which ensured privacy. The traditional pitched roof and surrounding veranda kept the bungalow cool in summer months. These bungalows can still be seen in the city. Other than that traditional styles of decoration and building exist. The lack of space in the city and crowding led to a type of building unique to Bombay, the chawl.

सही विकल्प है (क) अन्धकार

कवि कहता है अब दुख भरी रात बीत चुकी है और पक्षियों की चहचहाहट के साथ सुबह आ रही है।

सही विकल्प है (ख) जीवन में नयी आशा का संचार करने के लिए।

हिम + अंचल – हिमांचल
उत्तर + अंचल – उत्तरांचल
पूर्व + अंचल – पूर्वांचल
सोन + अंचल – सोनांचल
कोयला + अंचल – कोयलांचल
नीला + अंचल – नीलांचल

It was Lord Wellesley that introduced the Military Aid System, in 1728. The rulers who agreed to this system had to accept certain conditions.

• The ruler of the principality should maintain a permanent army of the Company in his land.
• The expenses for this army should be borne by the ruler.
• The rulers who join this system must not make any alliance with other countries or go to war without permission from the British
• The Company will be responsible for the safety of the ruler and his kingdom. The principality should, maintain a British Resident in his capital.
• Resident is the official designation for the representative of the Governor General. A Resident is appointed in places where there is no direct British rule.

(1) British officers showed sense of superiority. 

(2) Greased cartridges. 

The Sepoys had many problems and complaints. They had small salaries. The places they had to stay and the food they got were not of good quality. It was also difficult to get leave. The chances of promotion were limited. They did not get any foreign service allowance for working outside India. The journeys across the seas were not liked by many, because some religions prohibited such journeys. They also were unhappy because the British did not allow many of them to wear head covers and also beards.

(1) The British dethroned Nawab Wazid Ali Shah. 

(2) Zamindars, Talukadars and peasants did not like British

(1) Peasants were exploited by British and moneylenders. 

(2) Handicrafts men were jobless.

सही विकल्प है (b) बादशाही अंगूठी

Lord Wellesley

The native states without natural successor were forcefully made part of British Empire.

The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. It satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As the talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British, there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of the peasants.

They helped the peasants in their needs. They also gave the peasants loans during festivals. The peasants also showed loyalty to the talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The peasants got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

Dalhousie was the Governor General

Nanasahib leader of the Revolt at Kanpur

Thomas Johns Barker

Sirajudaula, the Nawab of Bengal in 1756, sacked the small fort from Britisher. In this fort the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently, when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort, Fort William which could not be easily attacked. Around this a vast open space was left. This open space ‘ was called the Maidan or garermath. This was done for security reasons, because there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the Fort. They built residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This indicates that how the English Settlement in Calcutta began to take shape. The vast open space around the Fort William became the significant town planning measure in Calcutta (Now Kolkata). 

Lord Wellesley was more concerned about the conditions that existed in the cities. Cities were overcrowded, and had no sanitation facilities. He issued an administrative order in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various committees for this purpose open places in the city would make the city healthier. As a result of this, many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or removed. After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work of town planning in Calcutta.Sirajudaula, the Nawab of Bengal in 1756, sacked the small fort from Britisher. In this fort the British traders had built to house their goods. Consequently, when Sirajudaula was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, the British built a new fort, Fort William which could not be easily attacked. Around this a vast open space was left. This open space ‘ was called the Maidan or garermath. This was done for security reasons, because there would be no obstructions to a straight time of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy army. Soon the British began to move out of the Fort. They built residences along the periphery of the Maidan. This indicates that how the English Settlement in Calcutta began to take shape. The vast open space around the Fort William became the significant town planning measure in Calcutta (Now Kolkata).

 Lord Wellesley was more concerned about the conditions that existed in the cities. Cities were overcrowded, and had no sanitation facilities. He issued an administrative order in 1803 on the need for town planning and set up various committees for this purpose open places in the city would make the city healthier. As a result of this, many bazaars, ghats, burial ground and tanneries were cleared or removed. After Wellesley’s departure, the Lottery Committee carried on with the work of town planning in Calcutta.

(i)The disintegration of the mughal empire after the death of Aurangzab paved the way of emergence of paverful regional powers. The capital cities of these regional kingdom likes Lucknow, Poona, Nagpur and Barda now become important. Taking the advantage of this opportunity many nobles and officials created new urban settlements such as the qasbah and ganj. 

(ii)The European companies too had set up their bases in different parts of India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For example the Portugues (in Panaji in 1570) and the British in Madras in 1639. With the expansion in commercial activity, towns began to emerge as trading centres. 

(iii)From the mid-eighteenth century trading. Centres like Surat and Dhakha which had grown in the seventeenth century now began to decline as trade shifted to other places. When the British acquired Bengal and the east Indian’s Company’s trade hereafter expanded the colonial port cities likes Madras and Calcutta. These new part cities began to emerge as the new economic capitals. 

(iv)In these newly developed cities many new buildings were built and new occupations developed. People flocked to these cities in large numbers. By the nineteenth century these newly developed cities become the biggest cities in India.

Strengths-(1) Complete cooperation between Hindus and Muslims, 

(2) Common people were also revolting, 

(3) All rebels wanted freedom.Weakness-(1) The revolt failed to spread in all areas, (2) All communities did not support, 

(3) Many rulers were supporter of British, 

(4) The rebel leaders were suspicious and Jealous of each other, 

(5) The rebel soldiers were not well equipped.

There was communication among the different military groups in the army camps. For example, after refusing to use the new greased cartridges, the cavalry in Awadh (7th Awadh Irregular Cavalry) informed the 48 Native Infantry about this. In the letter from Awadh it was mentioned that they were protecting their faith and they were waiting for further instructions from the 48^th Infantry. The Sepoys and their messengers from one centre exchanged their ideas and schemes . with another centre and that way the Revolt was planned. People talked about the Revolt.

The captain of the Awadh military police was Hearsey. He was given protection by the Indian officials working under him. 41 Native Infantry asked the Military Police to either kill Hearsey or hand him over to them. But the Military Police did not do any of these. Finally a group of officials chosen from each regiment was given the right to take a decision in this matter. Charles Ball, one of the early historians of the Revolt, has pointed out that at night there used to be meetings of such military councils. It shows that during the Revolt some decisions were taken collectively. Sepoys were living in barracks. They had similar ways of life. Often they belonged to the same religious faith. Therefore it was possible for them to plan together and take decisions. The Sepoys themselves were the planners of their Revolt.

The British had white skin as they were often described ‘white’ and they considered themselves as superior to others. On the other hand, the blacks had brown or black skin. So they were known as the ‘black’. The White signified their superiority over the black due to the colour of their skin. The British symbolised the Black areas full of chaos and anarchy, filth and disease and on the other hand, the white areas stood for cleanliness and hygiene. In Black areas, epidemics like cholera and plague often broke out. So the British took stringent measures to ensure sanitation and public health to prevent diseases of the Black areas. 

They ensured underground piped water supply and introduced sewerage and drainage system in White areas. Thus, we can say, the White Towns were those parts of the colonial towns where the White people lived. These towns had wide roads, barracks, churches, paradeground, big bungalows and gardens, symbolised settled city life, whereas the Indian lived in Black Towns, were said to be unorganised and a source of filth and disease.

Historians generally believed that there was no planning or united effort on the part of the rebels. But later studies show that there was some planning and unified effort on the part of the army in the Revolt. They had mutually exchanged news of their activities. Therefore the 1857 Revolt had a style of its own. When the news of Revolt of one city reached another city, there also Revolt took place. The incidents that occurred in different army units were similar in nature. The rebels attacked and looted the homes of the British officials, they vandalized the government organizations, they burned the documents and records and they looted the treasury. These things were similar everywhere.

Attacking government officials was part of the revolt. The rebels also attacked Collectors, judicial personnel and policemen. They also destroyed railways lines and communication channels. These were some of the ways in which the rebels revolted.

1857 Revolt start in Meerut

(i)There was a big contrast between extreme wealth and poverty in the new cities. New means of transport facilities such as horse-drawn carriages, trams, buses, etc. made travelling from home to work an interesting experience.(ii)Creation of public places like theatres public parks and cinema halls provided new forms of entertainment and social interaction. 

(iii)New social groups were formed people of all classes started to migrate to the cities. With an increased demand for lawyers and engineers the “middle class” increased. Debate and dicussion became popular and established social norms and practices were questioned. 

(iv)Cities also offered new opportunities for women. They chose new professions in the city as factory workers, teachers, film actresses, etc. for a long time so women remained objects of social censure.

.(i)Two concerns which influenced the town planning in the nineteenth century were defence and health. 

(ii)In many towns British built forts to protect their factories. Around the fort a vast open space was left open. This vast space was known as the Maidan. 

(iii)It was done so that there would be no obstructions to a straight line of fire from the Fort against an advancing enemy. 

(iv)Attempts were also made to improve the sanitation and cleanliness by creating open spaces in the city. 

(v)For this purpose, in Calcutta many bazaars, ghats and burial grounds were cleared.

Shah Mai was an important leader of the 1857 revolt. He lived in a village in Baraut Pargana in U.P. He belonged to the Jats. Many of the Jats were rich people. They objected to the land tax system of the British government. High taxes and the way in which it was collected affected the lives of the people. Their lands were often occupied by traders and money lenders. Shah Mai raised his voice against the exploitation of the British and their agents.

Shah Mai organized the fanners and heads of villages. He travelled in the nights and encouraged people to rise in revolt against the British. The revolt slowly became a popular revolt. The peasants fought against all kind of injustices. The followers of Shah.

Mai destroyed government buildings and bridges. They also destroyed the roads to prevent the government military from entering their villages. They saw the roads and bridges as the symbols of British rule. They also sent arms and food to the rebels in Delhi. They also destroyed the communication facilities between the British headquarters and Meerut.

Shah Mai forcefully occupied the bungalow of a British official and converted it into a Hall of Justice. There he settled the quarrels among the villagers and punished the culprits. He also established a kind of secret service chain.

Moulavis played a significant role in the 1857 revolt. One of them was Moulavi Ahamadullah Shah. He was educated at Hyderabad. From an early age, he became a religious preacher. In 1856, he openly came out against the British. He declared jihad against the British and travelled across the villages. He exhorted the people to rebel. He travelled in a palanquin with drummers in front and followers behind. He was therefore popularly known as Danka Shah. Danka means a drum or a tom-tom.

Thousands of people began to accompany the Moulavi. Many considered him a prophet.

The British were frightened. In 1856 the Moulavi reached Lucknow. The British prevented him from making propaganda in the town. As he refused, he was arrested and sent to a prison in Faisalabad. When he was released, the 22 Native Infantry declared him their leader. He took part in the famous Chinhat battle. In this battle the British army under Henry Lawrence was utterly defeated. The courage and strength of the Moulavi attracted people. Some people believed that he had some magical powers. They believed that he was undefeatable and the British could not kill him. It was this belief that gave the Moulavi his strength.

Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Jhansi, Gwalior.

In the British pictures there are differing views. In fact the Revolt was often pictured in such a way as to get public opinion in their favour. They praised the British leaders who saved the British and suppressed the rebels. The picture ‘Relief of Lucknow’ drawn by Thomas Johns Barker was one such picture.

When the rebels attacked Lucknow, the Commissioner Henry Lawrence, along with some Christians, took refuge in the Residency, protected by fortresses. Lawrence was killed, But Colonel Ingles saved the Residence from the rebels. In the meantime the British army under James Otram and Henry Have lock suppressed the rebels. Soon Colin Campbell, who was the new commander of the army of British came with an army and released all those who had taken shelter in the Residency. In the British descriptions this is shown as an example of heroic defence by the British and how gallantly they fought against the rebels.

The picture of Barker shows the entry of Campbell. In the middle of the picture we see the British commanders Campbell, Out ram, and Have lock. The sighs of hands around point them to the middle of the picture. The heroes are standing in a well-lit maidan.

In front there are shadows of the broken down Residency. In front there are wounded and dying people as proof of the sacrifices the British made in defending their Empire. There are also pictures of triumphant horses indicating the reestablishment of the British authority. Such pictures increased the self confidence of the British. They also gave them the feeling that the revolt had ended and the British had been triumphant.

(1) Native rulers were natural leader of the people. 

(2) They believed that Hindu Muslim unity is compulsory. 

(3) They wanted to restore the pre-British world. 

(4) Delhi was capital city in Mughal India and last Mughal emperor was there so rebels requested him for main leadership. 

(5) Mostly, kings had experience of leadership and organization.

(1) Both Hindus and Muslims requested Bahadur Shah for leadership. 

(2) The proclamation issued during the revolt, appealed to all sections equally. 

(3) The Sentiments of both communities were respected and cared. 

(4) The posters glorified the pre-British unity. 

(5) Hindus and Muslims were equally member of the military commanding committee.

(1) Mostly cantonments soldiers were revolting. 

(2) The rebels after revolting in Meeru set out for Delhi immediately. They wanted support of the Mughal emperor. 

(3) The messengers were working in transmitting news from one place to another. 

(4) Native officers' panchayats were convened at night and collective decisions were taken. 

(5) To send chapattis from one place to another place was common. 

(6) New administration was established.

A careful study of the data collected through the census provides us a lot of information in understanding the trend of urbanisation. It can be examined as under: 

(a) The process of urbanisation was sluggish in India after 1800. 

(b) In the nineteenth century and in first two decades of the twentieth century the proportion of the urban population was very low and stagnant. 

(c) Which recorded between 1900 and 1940, A 13% increase in the urban population which recorded between whereas during the same period, these was a overall 10% increase in the population of the whole country. 

(d) The data, thus, collected helps us in the enumeration of people according to their age, sex, caste, religion, occupation, etc.

(1) The rebels wanted to root out the British authority from India and restore pre-British world. 

(2) Interest of all classes of Indian society was hurt. It led to general resentment against the British among them. 

(3) The rulers and Jagirdars wanted to reoccupy their respective kingdoms and Jagirs. 

(4) Indian merchants wanted concessions in trade. They did not like interference in their accounts and transactions. 

(5) The peasants wanted liberal land revenue with liberal means of realization. They also wanted to abolish exploitation by Zamindars and Sahukars. 

(6) The government servants wanted good respect, salary, power and dignity. 

(7) Indian artisans and craftsmen wanted good vocational conditions. 

(8) Pandits, Fakirs and other learned persons wanted to protect Indian culture and religion.

It was not easy for the British to put down the Revolt quickly. They took legal, military and diplomatic measures to suppress the Revolt. The British made many new laws to suppress the Revolt. By the laws made in May and June 1857, the entire North India was brought under military law. The military commanders were given the power to try and punish the rebels. Even ordinary British citizens were given this right. In short, normal laws and judicial procedures were suspended. All the rebels were sentenced to death. With the aid of the new laws the British tried to suppress the Revolt.

The British made use of their military might to suppress the Revolt. More soldiers were brought from England. They tried to recapture the lost regions. ‘ Their main aim was Delhi. They knew the symbolic significance of Delhi. So they wanted to get it back at any cost. They planned a two pronged attack. Two sets of armies were used. One set began to move from Calcutta to Delhi and the other from Punjab. They started their efforts in June, but they could capture Delhi only at the end of September 1857. Both the rebels and the army fought bitterly. All the rebels from North India came to Delhi to prevent the British from taking over Delhi. Finally Delhi fell into the hands of the British.

In the Ganges Plain also the progress of the British was slow. British soldiers took the villages one by one. The villagers fought heroically against the British. The British soon realized that they were facing not just a rebellion but a huge revolt. Forsyth who was a British official said that \(\frac{4}{3}\) of the Awadh male adults took part in the fight. The British could recapture the place only after a long fight, in March 1859. The leaders of the revolt were forced to surrender. All the rebel centres – Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Banaras, Allahabad, and Gwalior-were recaptured by the British.

The landowners and the farmers of most of the modem Uttar Pradesh combined their efforts in fighting the British. This made the British worried. So they played diplomacy here. They promised the landlords that they would return the land taken from them. They ousted the landowners who still rebelled and gave presents to those who withdrew from the revolt. Many landowners died heroically in their fight against the British. Many escaped into Nepal but died their either from hunger or disease. By the end of 1859, the revolt was completely put down. Thus the authority of the British over India was reestablished.

One of the most important features of the 1857 Revolt was the unity exhibited by the Hindus and Muslims. This unity was the strength of the rebels. It was clear from the declarations they made. They were addressed to all the people irrespective of their religious faith. The edicts issued by the Muslim rulers made sure that they respected the feelings of Hindus. The Revolt was seen as a battle in which both Hindus and Muslims had to win. These declarations reminded people of the unity that existed in pre-British India. Under the Muhgal rule, both the communities had worked together. An edict that came from Bahadur Shah asked the people to stand behind the flags of both Muhammed and Mahavira to fight against the British. During the Revolt, no difference between Hindus and Muslims was seen.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the local kings, talukdars, peasants and sepoys very unhappy and angry. By taking over Awadh, not only the Nawab but also many talukdars lost their jobs. The talukdars had many estates and fortresses in the villages of Awadh. They had been in control of these lands for generations. They had much power in the villages. They also used to keep small army units with them. Some even had armies numbering up to 12,000 soldiers. Even the small ones had 200 footmen.

The British refused to accept the autonomy and authority of the talukdars. Soon after they took over Awadh, they dispersed the armies of the talukdars and destroyed their fortresses. The land tax system also was not liked by the talukdars. The British enforced the new tax system in 1856. This was called the Summary Settlement of 1856. This was enforced with the concept that the talukdars had no permanent ownership of the land. The British saw them as encroachers who got the ownership of the land using all kinds of cheating and even force.

The British wanted to avoid the talukdars and make settlements with the real owners of the land. They thought this would reduce exploitation of the farmers and increase the government’s income. But in reality none of these happened. The officials soon realized that the tax imposed on the farmers was much more than their capacity to pay. In short the Summary Settlement was a failure. St satisfied neither the farmers nor the talukdars.

As talukdars lost their positions, their social status was lost. The relations between them and the farmers were ruined. Before the take-over by the British there was cordiality between the talukdars and the farmers. Although the talukdars were strict, they often behaved like the guardians of peasants. They helped peasants in their needs. They also gave peasants loans during festivals. Peasants also showed loyalty to talukdars. But the coming of the British spoiled all these. The farmers got no consideration from the British. The British charged them heavy tax and used strict methods to collect it. During crop failure, or times of trouble, or feasts, the British never helped the peasants.

The ousted talukdars wanted to get back their lost estates and power. They became the strongest enemies of the British. In places like Awadh, where the revolt was the worst, the talukdars and the farmers were in the forefront of the revolt. Many of the talukdars were loyal to the Nawab. They joined Begum Hazrat- Mahal, the wife of the Nawab, in her fight against the British. Even in failure, the talukdars did not abandon the Begum.

The taking over of Awadh by the British made the sepoys also unhappy. Many of them were from Awadh itself. They did not like the idea of their birthplace getting into the hands of the British.

(1) The British artist presents the Britishers as heroes. 

(2) As saviours the relief of Lucknow painted by Thomas Jones Barker is remarkable in this regard. 

(3) Collin Campbell and Jones Outram captured Lucknow defeating the rebels. Recapturing of Lucknow has been described by the British as a symbol of survival, heroic resistance and ultimate trump of British power. 

(4) In memoriam was famous painting of Joseph Noel. He expressed helplessness of English ladies and children. 

(5) Miss Wheeler has been depicting example of defending heroine. 

(6) The heroic image of Laxmibai inspired Indian for struggle. 

(7) Cruel images of British were the symbol of revenge. 

(8) Brutal images of Indian soldiers were the symbols of strangeness against British. 

(9) Indian artist persuaded nationalism and patriotism in Indians.

Rumours and predictions did play a big role in the 1857 Revolt. They worked as a propelling force for the rebels to be more active. The immediate cause of the Revolt was the rumour about the new cartridges for the Enfield rifles. A rumour spread that these cartridges were smeared with cow and pig fat. This news spread among the North Indian sepoys like wild fire. The sepoys of Meerut went to Delhi. They told the Emperor Bahadur Shah about this. The covers of the new cartridges were to be opened by using teeth. The use of cow and pig fat would thus pollute both the Hindus and Muslims. They felt their religions were in danger. Although the British tried to show that this was just a rumour, people refused to believe them.

The origin of this rumour was later found out. Captain Wright, who was the Commander of the Rifle Instruction Depot, had reported an Incident. In the 3^rd week of January 1857, a khalasi from a lower caste asked a Brahmin sepoy to give him some water from his container of water. The sepoy refused to give him his container saying that touch by a lower caste would pollute the water. The angered Khalasi then told him that soon he would have to use cartridges smeared with cow and pig fat and then he would lose his caste. We don’t know the truth of this story. But this rumour spread fast, creating great unrest among the sepoys of both religions. The British failed to explain things in time.

Another rumour quickly followed. It said that the British government was deliberately panning to destroy the Hindu and Muslim faiths. The rumour mongers also said that the bones of both cows and pigs were ground and mixed with the our sold in the market. People then refused even to touch this our. There was also a feeling that the British were trying to convert Hindus and Muslims into Christianity. This increased the fear and anxiety of the followers of these religions. Although the British official tried to remove their fear, they did not believe them. All these rumours played havoc.

The British also took steps to take over the small kingdoms or principalities in the land. They annexed Awadh on the pretext of maladministration. They took Jhansi and Satara using laws of succession and heredity. In all the regions taken by them, the British enforced their own administration, laws, tax systems and means of tax collection. All these things made the people of North India worried. They felt that their religious, social and economic ideas were being destroyed by the British. The activities of the Christian missionaries made their doubts stronger. In such uncertain circumstances, rumours spread like wild fire.

The prominent Indian merchants and traders settled in colonial cities like Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. They served as agents or middlemen for the British and lived traditionally built courtyard houses in the Black Town. They centred over large tracts of land in these cities and heavily made investments for the future. 

They wanted to impress their British masters or colonial ruler or white people living in white towns by giving lavish parties during festivals seasons and built temples to establish their supremacy and prestige in society.

(1) Marshall Law was clamped throughout the north India. 

(2) All Englishmen were empowered to punish Indians. 

(3) The common process of law and trial was brought to an end. 

(4) British army assisted from many sides. 

(5) Many native states assisted against rebels. 

(6) Rebel cruelly punished.

1. pig

2. Dalhousie

3. Barrakpur

4. Tanya Tope

5. Bahadur Shah Zafar

Following are the major reasons to explain why the rebellious soldiers turned to native rulers for leadership: 

1.East India company defeated native rulers to grab power in India. Many believed that the native Indian rulers had the legal and legitimate authority to regain power in the respective kingdoms. Therefore, it was natural that they became the leaders of the rebels and regain the lost status of rulers. 

2.The erstwhile rulers had substantial resources at their command. They had wealth and private armies too. The rebels waited to get the support of resources from them, and by declaring them the leaders it was natural outcome. 

3.Most of the erstwhile Indian rulers were popular at the local level. Their subjects often sympathised with them as they believed that the latter were unlawfully thrown out of power and even suffered humiliation. Choosing these native rulers was echoing the sentiments of the people and winning more support for the cause.