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(d) All of these

(c) Security Council

1. It is based on Panchsheel principles. 

2. It is associated with non-alignment.

(c)  Conduct

(b) Expansion of imperialism

In 1956 Egypt was attacked.

Pt. jawahar Lal Nehru.

(c) Live and let others live

Janata Party was formed in 1977.

After 1977 general election did alliance politics start.

(b) Indian National Congress

Chaudhary Charan Singh.

(a) Live and let others live

(c) Formation of temporary Governments

(a) Primacy of one party

(b) World War II

The policy of non-alignment was developed in reference to cold war. After the end of cold war and the disintegration of Soviet Union, question marks were seen on the relevance of nonalignment movement. According to critics, the. relevance and efficacy of non-alignment was dubious. In fact, the meaning of nonalignment is associated with the freedom of foreign policy and its aim is to promote equality, sovereignty and unity of sovereign countries.

In this reference, it still remains relevant. Earlier, at the time of cold war or in double polar system its relevance was to remain separate from the two super powers, USA and Soviet-Union. Newly independent countries took the membership of non-alignment movement, so that these two superpowers could not exert their influence on them. Later, the situation changed and in the new unipolar world, non-alignment movement is important, because :

1. An effective stage is necessary for different international problems of human rights, world trade, climate change, or regarding the improvement in UNO and to express the view of developing countries. Non-alignment movement is working as a stage. 

2. Althought after the disintegration of Soviet Union, the bipolar system also ended, but the sovereignty and security challenges of poor and weak nations did not reduce. Under the influence of UNQ, symptom of one polar system is flourishing. Thus, to maintain freedom of developing countries, non-alignment movement is necessary. 

3. At present non-alignment movement is effective to face the main challenges of the world. It is a stage that presents equal partnership to all developing countries of the world which is the main challenge of the world. Threats to security, environment pollution, and health problems can be faced easily. 

4. There are several agencies of world management in which, there is no sufficient role of developing countries. Thus, the NAM is a different institution of the world. There is a need to give more effective representation to developing countries. In this connection, there is need to give special attention on IMF and other financial institutions, which address the needs of developing countries through nonalignment movement. 

5. Non-alignment movement is capable of exchanging culture, and social and political values among the different countries of the world. 

6. It means to stay away from military groups. There is a need of disarmament in the world which is mooted by non-alignment movement, so that peace may remain in the world. 

7. Developing countries needed a movement to protect against big and capitalist countries.

8. In international arena, to maintain free existence and recognition, non-alignment movement is important in the world.

In 1965 a war take place between India and Pakistan.

In 1967 the Israel and Arab war break.

(a)  Pt. Nehru

It is ‘Veto Power’.

The number of temporary members in security council is 10.

(a) Of national importance

(a) Lok Sabha

Principle of co-existence : 

The essence of Indian foreign policy is the “feeling of co-existence in a peaceful way”. It means giving help to other countries at the time of crises. If the countries would not live together in friendly way, no peace would establish in the world, thus, for the development of society, it is necessary to live in friendly with all countries. India believes in the concept of co-existence through the policy of Panchsheel and non-alignment. The principles of Panchsheel is an important base to encourage peaceful coexistence. The five principles of Panchsheel were declared jointly on April 29, 1954, by Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru and China’s premier Chou-en-lai.

Main aims of the UNO : 

1. To provide freedom from the wars to the coming generations of mankind and to provide permanence to international peace and security. 

2. Increasing friendly relations among all states, providing equal rights to all big and small states and obeying the principles of self decision. 

3. Solution to all of economic, cultural and humanitarian problems should be done with the cooperation of states and to provide basic freedom to all without any discrimination. 

4. UNO should be made such a center which can get success by establishing harmony in all states to attain common aims.

Present Importance of UNO : 

Although UNO remained a failure in stopping wars and the crises caused by them, yet every country considers it an important and unavoidable organization. UNO like the former organization League of Nations, did not remain a failure after second world war. Thus, it is compulsory to maintain UNO. 

Following points are given in Reference to its importance : 

1. UNO can arrange talks among USA and other countries of the world over different issues. Through it, small, medium and poor countries can talk with America. 

2. Upto 2011, 193 countries became the members of UNO. It is an effective stage of the world. Here the discussion is done with open mind over international peace, security, social and economic problems. 

3. UNO does not have such power which can compel any country, but it can keep a check on their powers whether it may be USA. UNO can express the world’s reaction to USA’s policies. 

4. Today some countries have nuclear bombs, but due to the influence of its power, UNO has got success in checking the making and use of chemical and biological weapons. 

5. UNO remained successful in providing loans to poor nations from World Bank, IMF and other help in emergency. That is why, its existence is necessary. 

6. Today each country understands the need for mutual dependence and as such, it has increased, due to UNO’s is efforts. This is the stage where most of the countries of the world are available. No country is complete in itself, cooperation of others is always needed, whether it is America or England.

This it is clear from the above mentioned causes that the use of UNO should be done with the feeling of human values, universal brotherhood and mutual cooperation. Its existence is quite compulsory for international peace and security.

In 2005, on its 60th anniversary, several steps were taken to make it more important :

1. On the formation of peace keeping commission, agreement of all countries should be expressed. 

2. A decision, of making a democratic fund, was taken. 

3. All the members with their agreement should strive to establish Human Rights Council. 

4. All the member countries have emphasized to take hard steps to end terrorism.

Suggestions to make UNO more important : 

1. The countries which are not the members of UNO yet, should be persuaded to become its members. 

2. The number of temporary members in security council should be increased. 

3. The funding of UNO, should be increased, so that it may conduct more functions of development and growth.

The first meeting of the UN General Assembly was held in London.

1. Accepting the restrictions regarding constitution of the court. 

2. Contribution in estimated expenses of general assembly.

1. UNESCO 

2. WHO

Mr Paul Spook of Belgium.

After world war II, to maintain and establish international peace and cooperation, the need of a world organization was felt. With this view on October 24, 1945, UNO was founded. The first, meeting of UN general assembly was held on June 10, 1946 in London. There are 111 articles in the chapter of UNO, in which its organization, powers and functions are described.

Organizational structure of UNO. 

In it, 6 major organs are included, which are described as given below :

i. General Assembly : 

It is a top institution of UNO. It is given the name of the “meeting hall of world.” Ideas of all big and small countries are heard here. All the members of UN are the members of general assembly. Any member country cannot send more than five representatives to the General Assembly. Each country has a single vote in general assembly. The general assembly elects its President only for one year. Its meeting is held on third Tuesday of September each year. It discusses affairs related to international peace and security. It passes the budget of UN. It elects the members of UN’s other organs.

ii. Security Council : 

It is the executive body of UNO. It is an important party of UNO. It has fifteen members in which five are permanent : USA, China, Russia, France and Britain. Besides, there are ten temporary members, These are elected by general assembly for two years. The five permanent members of security council have special power (Veto). If any permanent member disagrees on any important question, that motion is disapproved. It is a guardian of international peace and security, any country can put its problem before it. It decides the disputes between the countries, and can use power, if necessary. With the cooperation of general assembly, it elects the judges of international court.

iii. International Court : 

It is an important part of UNO. Its headquarters is in Hague. It decides the disputes of the different countries of the world according to international laws. The member countries obey the decision. Its judges are elected by general assembly. All the members of UNO are its members. There are 22 judges in this court. They are experts in international law. They are appointed for 9 years and after every three years, 5 judges are retired. The judges can fight the election again. Indian justice Dalveer Bhandari is currently a judge of international court.

The powers and rights of international court can be divided into three parts :

1. Optional right 

2. Compulsory right 

3. Advisory right.

iv. Trusteeship Council : 

It is a subordinate part of UNO. As a helping part of general assembly, it works for inspection of administration in strategic areas as an assistant to the UN political committee. Trusteeship council has done a lot of development in political, economic and social fields. This council also looks after the administration of those areas who are under the control and protection of UN. Besides, it tries to make such areas independent by making them progressive.

v. Secretariat : 

It is an important part of UNO. It is the headquarters of UN which administers and coordinates different programs and policies executed by the other organizations or agencies of UN. The head of UN’s secretariate is the secretary general. His election, on the recommendation of general assembly, is done for five years.

Following works are performed by secretary general :

1. To call meeting of security council, economic and social council. 

2. To execute the decisions taken by different parts of UN. 

3. To make aware security council about world threats. 

4. To provide the report of secretariat’s work to general assembly.

(a) Federalism

To establish the rule of law in the society, an independent judiciary is very essential. The independence of the judiciary is the foundation pillar of a democratic political system. 

It includes three necessary conditions : 

1. Judiciary must be free from the interference of other departments of the government. 

2. The decisions and orders of judiciary must be free from the interference of the executive and the Legislature. 

3. The judges must have the freedom to deliver justice without any fear or favour. 

In this way, by empowering the judiciary, the disputes between the centre and the states can be solved as per the provisions made in the constitution.

Sarkaria commission was set up in June 1983 by the central government of India. Its charter was to examine the relationship and balance of power between state and central governments in the Country and suggest changes within the framework of constitution of India. The commission was so named as it was headed by justice Ranjit Singh Sarkaria (Chairman of the commission), a retired judge of the supreme court of India.

This three-member commission submitted its report in January 1988 to the central government. The commission recommended, by and large, status quo in the centre-state relations, especially in the areas, related to legislative matters, role of governors and use of Article 356. It suggested a powerful centre, but strong states. It laid emphasis on the establishment of permanent interstate council. It also emphasised that both the centre and state governments should be responsive towards development of the backward regions.

If it is maintained properly in a planned way, there will be an automatic end of the separatist powers. Disputes between the centre and the state should be solved mutually. It justified the demand of more financial aid by the states. To improve the relation between the centre and the states, the commission has recommended economic liberalization and amendments in the constitution.

General Assembly.

It is granted by general assembly on the recommendation of security council.

Single Citizenship : 

According to the constitution the federal system has been adopted in India. In India there is no provision of dual citizenship as it is in, the USA. In India, the constitution has given only single citizenship to all its citizens.

 Features : 

1. Every citizen has been given only one or single citizenship equally in the society. 

2. In India nobody can have the citizenship of two countries simultaneously. 

3. Single citizenship provides stability in the society. 

4. Its objective is to strengthen emotional unity.

(b)  The USA

1. One constitution 

2. The consent of the states not mandatory for the redistribution of the boundaries of a state.

Federal structure is formed by two processes: 

1. Different sovereign units combine into one unit. 

2. One big political unit divides itself into different units with a view to providing efficient governance.

1. To respect the sovereignty of all members.

2. Solving disputes peacefully.

1. Talk over the issues associated with international peace and security. 

2. Past the UN Budget.

The example of the kind of federalism in which “One big political unit divides itself into different units with a view to providing efficient governance, is India.

Judiciary settles the disputes between the centre and the states.

Under article 352, 356, and 360, the President can declare a state of emergency.

Under article 248 of the Indian constitution, the residuary powers have been vested in the centre.

1. Impartial and independent judiciary. 

2. Supremacy of the constitution.

The features of Indian Federal System : 

The features of Indian federal system are as follows : 

i. Supremacy of the constitution : 

Indian constitution is the highest law of the country. The Parliament of India and Vidhan Mandal get their powers from the constitution only. The laws which are not according to the constitution are declared illegal by the Supreme Court. The President, Governor, and other persons holding major posts take oath to work according to the constitution.

ii. Clear distribution of governmental power : 

The Governmental powers have been distributed between the centre and the states as follows : 

1. The Union list: The list contains 97 subjects on which the centre has the right to enact laws. 

2. The State List: In this list there are 66 subjects on which the state governments have the right to enact laws. 

3. Concurrent List: The list contains 47 subjects on which both the centre and the state governments have the right to enact laws. Residuary powers are vested with the central government.

iii. Impartial and Independent judiciary : 

To have an impartial and independent judiciary is essential for the proper functioning of a federal system. Only this can establish the rule of law, and disputes between the centre and the states can be resolved as per the provisions of the constitution. The supreme court is the apex and the only judicial institution to adjudicate in such cases.

iv. The post of the governor : 

The governor is an important organ of Indian federal system. The governor is appointed by the centre and works in the state as the representative of the central government.

v. Single citizenship : 

Contrary to the provision of traditional federalism, there is a provision of single citizenship in the Indian federalism.

vi. Unitary Dominance : 

Indian federal system may be said to be basically a system of federal dominance. It was natural to make the centre powerful to keep the unity and integrity of the country safe and secure. Although some separatist thoughts and Leftist political parties object to this unitary tendency. Infact, the centre has the decisive role through several provisions. In matters of amendment in the constitution, creation of new states, redistribution of boundaries, emergency provisions, economic rights, the status of the centre has been made powerful and decisive.

vii. The Rajya Sabha : 

The House representing the states in the Central Legislature : To empower the federalism of the country, only the upper house of the Indian legislature, the Rajya Sabha, has been established as a representative institution of the states.

At present, the USA, Australia, Switzerland, Russia, Canada, and India are considered as the successful federal countries.

Jammu and Kashmir has its own separate constitution.