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After the family, the role of neighbors is very important in the life of an individual. Getting good neighbors is considered as an important pleasure of life. Good neighbors live in harmony just like a family does and help one another in times of sorrow and distress. They extend full cooperation in times of marriages and other ceremonies and lead happy life. The cycle of happiness and sorrow is a part of life. If the neighbors are good, then the time of distress in life can also be passed in easier manner with the help of their cooperation. Therefore, if one wants to live an affectionate life along with the feeling of security and mutual coordination, then one should forget petty disputes and make efforts to maintain good relations with the neighbors.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel was appointed the first Home Minister of India.

On 17 September 1948.

Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Nagaland, Mizoram etc.

Justice Fazal Ali

After Independence, the demand of re-organization of state on the basis of language arose. It became strong as it was assured by the Congress before independence in 1937. The first state formed was Andhra Pradesh. After this, demand of the formation of states became strong. Hence, Indian Government formed a State Reorganization Commission in 1953. Justice Fazal Ali was made president of this Commission.

K.M. Pannikar and Kunjaru were made members of it. In 1955, the organization presented its report. On the basis of this report, the Indian Parliament passed State Reorganization Act in 1956. Fourteen states and six union territories were formed, but demand for the formation of more states was continued in different parts of the nation in form of movements.

The process of forming the Rajasthan state was completed on 1st November 1956.

Different steps of unification of Rajasthan are:

1. Matsya Sangh: In first step of unification of Rajasthan Matsya Sangh was formed by the accession of Alwar, Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli and region of Neemrana which is geographically same. It was named Matsya Sangh. It was the name of this region in Mahabharata period. On 18 March 1948, the Central Minister N.V. Gadgil did inauguration of this Sangh. Ruler of Dholpur was made its Raj Pramukh, Shobharam was made its Prime minister and Alwar was made its capital. 

2. East Rajasthan: In this second step, nine states, i.e., Banswara, Doongarpur, Pratapgarh, Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar, Kishangarh, Shahpura and Tonk were merged and East Rajasthan was organized. It was inaugurated by N.V. Gadgil on 25 March 1948. Ruler of Kota was made its Raj Pramukh, Gokul Lai Asawa was made the Prime Minister, Kota was made its capital. 

3. United Rajasthan: Maharana of Mewar was ready to merge before the organization of East Rajasthan. On 11 April 1948 Mewar signed on the document of merger. In this way after merging Mewar into East Rajasthan, United Rajasthan was formed. It was inaugurated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. On 18th April 1948, Maharana of Mewar Bhoopal Singh was made Raj Pramukh and Manikya Lai Verma Prime Minister. Udaipur was made its capital. 

4. Greater Rajasthan: After the merger of Mewar, merger of other states became easy. In fourth step, merger of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer gave birth to the formation of Greater Rajasthan. On 30 March 1949 it was inaugurated by Sardar Patel. Maharana Bhoopal Singh of Mewar was made its Maharaj Pramukh and Heera Lai Shastri was made the Prime Minister. Jaipur was declared its capital. Being the most important step of unification, this day is celebrated as Rajasthan Diwas. 

5. United Greater Rajasthan: During this process, Matsya Sangh was working independently, but being the part of border region of Uttar Pradesh decision regarding it had to done accordingly. Hence, on 15 May 1948, Matsya Sangh was merged in Greater Rajasthan and United Greater Rajasthan was formed. Shobha Ram Shastri was included in Council of Ministers. 6. Rajasthan Union: In merger steps, question of merger of Sirohi was left. On 26 January 1950, two Tehsils of Sirohi i.e. Abu and Dilwara were merged in Bombay and rest of the Sirohi was merged in Rajasthan. People of Sirohi wanted the merger of two Tehsils also in Rajasthan. Hence, this issue was handed over to the State Reorganization Commission. 

7. Formation of Present Rajasthan: In British period, Ajmer-Marwada was a union territory hence it remained an independent state till 1956 as grade ‘C’ state. At last on the recommandation of the State Reorganization Commission, this region was merged in Rajasthan. Abu and Dilwara were also merged in Rajasthan on the recommendation of the Commission. Border attached with Madhya Pradesh was also reorganized. Suneltappa of Madhya Pradesh and Sironj of Rajasthan was merged in Madhya Pradesh. At last on 1^st November 1956 unification of Rajasthan was completed and the present form of Rajasthan came into being. Post of Raj Pramukh was abolished. Gurumukh Nihal Singh took oath in the form of first Governor of the state.

He thought like that because:

1. Landowners could not pass on their land to their heirs.

2. They were not interested in maintaining or improving the land.

3. It prevented the landowners who wanted to bring prosperity to their land from taking positive steps and make long term investments.

4. It caused destruction of agriculture.

5. It led to the suppression of farmers.

6. It adversely affected the living standards of people.

Kitab-ul-Hind

Horse Post (Mail)

Fiscal deficits are generally treated as inflationary. Increase in govt, expenditure and cuts in taxes both leads to government deficit. Increased govt, expenditure and reduced taxes tend to increase the aggregate demand. Generally firms are not able to produce higher quantities that are demanded at the going prices. This leads to inflationary pressure. However, there is a solution to this inflationary pressure. The economy can utilize the unutilized resources and raise production. Therefore, the deficit cannot be inflationary when an economy has unutilized resources.

(d) old age pension

Bernier, there was no private land ownership in India.

After the advent of Islam in the early, middle ages , it saw a new movement in later part. The movement has had great impact and reach in the Indian subcontinent. It is called Sufi movement. The Sufi saints were mystics. Their preachings included: 

1. Sufi saints did not subscribe to the theological and rigid interpretations of religious scriptures of Islam. They believed that the interpretation have to be based on individual experiences. This way the theological interpretations became flexible. Further the control of the orthodox religious leaders got weakened. This was a people centric move. 

2. They rejected the high sounding rituals. They also emphasised on simplicity in religious traditions and rites. 

3. Sufi saints prescribed devotion to Almighty as path to salvation. They even approved of singing and dancing as part of devotion. It is notable that classical Islam has forbidden singing, dancing and any music. 

4. The most important theme of Sufi philosophy was that serving people is the true religion. With the objective of serving the poor people they also held Langar. Today also one can go to Ajmer and can partake in the Langar organised on the tomb of Nijammudin Auliya, the great Sufi saint. 

5. Sufi saints also emphasised on the equality among people and oneness among all.

• Main objectives of people to travel. 
• In search of job opportunities. 
• To expand their trade. 
• To escape from any threat of natural calamity. 
• In form of Soldier and priest.

• Caste System was influenced by Sanskrit texts. 
• There were four Vernas i.e. Brahman, Kshatriya, vaishya and shudra. 
• He pointed out about ancient Persian society which was also divided into four categories. 
• He was against the notion of pollution. 
• According to the law of nature anything which becomes impure, ultimately becomes pure again. 
• He realized that the caste system was not as rigid as portrayed in Sanskrit text.
• Untouchables were expected to provide inexpensive labour to peasants and zamindars. 

Yes, because -

• Always danger of robbers. 
• Travellers felt home sickness and fell ill.

Montesquieu talked about Oriental Despotism

The period of the Bhakti Movement and Sufi Movement also has many sources that contribute to the history of those days. Some of the major social and religious ideas expressed in the various sources of history are as follows: 

1. The first is the architecture. The different types of stupas, temple, monasteries all symbolise different types of religious belief system and practices. Some of them exist as it is and enable us to look into the annals of history of those days. Some of them are in the form of ruins but they also throw light on the, religion and society of those days alike. 

2. The next important source of history is the composition of the saints both Bhakti and Sufi. In terms of content they are religious but they are not the divine textbooks of religion that are sacrosanct. The compilation throws light on the life of common men and village lifestyle. They also impact the music and art of those days. 

3. Another very important source of the history of those days is the biographies of the Saints. The biographies include the description of the society and prevalent beliefs and practices. It is notable that such biographies may not be in the written form still they can give insight into the life of those days. It is the story prevalent that I when Kabirdas died, both Hindus and Muslims fought for his dead body later on his body turned into flowers. Some were taken by Muslims and others by Hindus. This represents that there conflict and collaboration between both Hindus and Muslims of those days. 

4. This was also the period of rise of religious leaders who were intermediaries between common men and God. Earlier it was only the Brahmins who got this role. Now many people from other background also joined in. To some extent it acted as the the force that idolised equality and fraternity. 

5. The other source is the folklore. They are described in our art forms. It may be dance, paintings, and sculpture and so on. They all talk about the universal brotherhood of mankind and love for one and all.

The main objectives of Bernier -

• To compare India with the European Conditions. 
• Europeans may take correct decision regarding India. 
• To highlight the Europeans Supremacy. 

In medieval India, though Sanskrit and Persian may be the language of the educated people or at the court, the vast number of people living in villages conversed in the local languages. It was, therefore, needed that the Bhakti and Sufi saints preached in the languages of the common people. This was in fact essential in order to make these movement truly popular. This is manifested in the following examples: 1. The traditional Bhakti saints composed the hymns in Sanskrit. Such hymns were sung on special occasions often within temples. 2. The Nayanars and the Alvars were wandering saints. They travelled far and wide, often walking on foot. They met people in different villages. These saints would sing the verses in praise of God all in the language of the local people only. The language was Tamil only. These travelling saints established temples where prayers took place in Tamil and the devotional songs were composed by the Bhakti Saints. 3. In North India the language was different. Here too the saints took to the language of the common people. Guru Nanak created Shabad all in Punjabi. Baba Farid and Swami Raidas (Ravidas) all composed in Punjabi and Hindustani. 4. Kabirdas who lived in Benaras, wrote in local language which was closer to Hindustani. He used words there part of local dialect. 5. The Sufi tradition of singing on tombs carried on in the language of the local people only. The shrines were the place of Sama sung in Hindustani or Hindavi. Another Sufi Saint Baba Farid composed in Punjabi too that even became part of Guru Granth Sahib. 6. Some other saints wrote in Kannada, Tamil and other languages too. Thus, we are inclined to agree with the view that the Saints of Bhakti and Sufi Movement composed in many languages and the languages of the common people to connect with them.

Revenue expenditure:

Revenue expenditure is expenditure incurred for the normal functioning of the government. Which does not create liabilities or reduce the assets of the govt.
It can be further classified into plan revenue expenditure and non-plan revenue expenditure.

Capital expenditure:

This expenditure creates physical or financial assets or decreases the liability of the government. Capital expenditure can be further classified into plan capital expenditure and non-plan capital expenditure.

(i) Ibn Batuta was a Moroccan traveller; He wrote a book called Rihla - description of his journey. 

(ii) For eight years at the court of Tughlaq. 

(iii) Egypt, Palestine, Arabia, Persia, Oman, Eastern Africa, Mecca, Syria & reached Delhi in AD-1333.

English language

(i) Revenue Deficit

(ii) Gross fiscal deficit

 During the period of the 10th Century to the 17th Century, an important trend noticed in the religious life in India is the worship of God in many forms. Many God and Goddesses appear in the scultures and texts but they are various forms of the original deities only. These original deities are Vishnu, Shiva, and Goddesses Durga, Lakshmi and Parvati. 

Historians have noticed the two marked trends in the socio-religious life of those days. The first was dissemination of the Brahminical ideas. The Brahminical texts were reproduced in simple Sanskrit. They were now made available to women and shudras, who did not have access to Brahminical literature by and large. 

The second was the Brahmins who were working on the beliefs and practices. It was a process of evolution, wherein traditional classical traditions were getting new shapes continuously as they were being impacted by the traditions of common people throughout the land. Now let us look at the two of the following examples. 

1.A very good example of the above description is the temple of Jagannatha at Puri in Orissa. The temple is of Lord Jagannatha who is another form of Vishnu only. The word Jagannatha means one who owns the world. 

2.There were many local gods; their statues were often created by wood and stones by tribals. Even families began to have Kul Devata. The Goddeses were also created in wood and stone. They all were in various forms only often of Vishnu.

• In the Mughal Empire all land was owned by the emperor. 
• Lack of Private property. 
• Crown ownership was disastrous for both economy and society. 
• Land couldn't be inherited by their heirs. 
• Land holders ignored the improvement in land.
• Resulted - decline in agricultural yields, oppression of the peasantry, decline in living standards of all sections of society. 
• There were only two classes - rich ruling class and poor class - no middle class existed in India. 
• Many European travellers were influenced by Bernier's view. But this presents an erroneous picture.

(a) Revenue receipts

(b) Revenue receipts + non-debt creating capital receipts

(c) Net investment liabilities

(d) MPS

. During the 17th century nearly 15% of population was living in town. This was average proportion of urban population of western Europe. Bernier described Mughal towns as court towns. By it he meant those towns which depended upon the imperial court for their existence and survival. These towns came into existence with the imperial court and declined with the impanel court when they moved to other places. In his travel accounts, Bernier described many big towns and cities such as Delhi, Mathura, Kashmir, Surat, Masulipatnam and Golconda. 

These gained importance as manufacturing centres, trading towns, and sacred towns. The merchant communities had deep influence in these cities. They remained organised due to their own caste and occupational bodies. These trading groups were known as Mahajans in western India. Their head was called Sheth. In Ahmedabad, the chief of Merchant community was known as nagarsheth. Besides the trading groups, musicians, architects, painters, lawyers, calligraphies, etc. lived in towns.

Answer Ibn Juzayy 

Bernier’s assessment about Indian rural society was not correct. It was far away from the truth, but it is not acceptable. There are some truth in his description which are evident from the following facts. 

(i)According to his account, mughal empire was the owner of the land and distributed among its nobles. It had a disastrous impact on the society. 

(ii)According to him the system of crown of ownership of land was good. It was because, the land holders could not pass on their land to their children. They did not make any long term investment on the land. 

(iii)As there was no private property in land, there was not any improvement in the landlord class. 

This system ruin agriculture and led to opinion of peasants. Bernier’s view regarding Indian society had the following features: 

(i)The rich people Were in minority. 

(ii)It had the poorest of the poor and the richest of the rich, no middle class existed there. 

(iii)All the cities and towns were reined and had contaminated air.

Al-Biruni’s description about caste system as he understood. Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking far parallels in other societies. He described that in ancient Persia, four social categories were recognised.

(i)knight and princes. 

(ii)monks 

(iii)fire-priests and lawyers; physicians, astronomers, other scientists; 

(iv)Finally, peasants and artisans. He attempted to suggest that social divisions were not unique to India. His description of the caste system in India was deeply influenced by his study of Sanskrit texts. According to these texts, the highest castes were the Brahmins as they were created from the head of the Brahmins. 

The Kshatriyas were the next caste created from the shoulders and hands of the Brahmin. The Vaishyas and Shudras were created from the thighs and feet of the Brahmin respectively.

 Thus, he sought to understand the Indian caste system by looking for parallels in other societies. Nothing that ancient Persian society was divided into four categories he realized that social division was not unique to India.

 But despite accepting the caste system he was against the notion of pollution. He believed that according to the laws of nature anything which becomes impure ultimately becomes pure again, e.g. the sun clears the air. The concept of social pollution is the bedrock of the caste system. Thus, the caste system was according to him contrary to the laws of nature. He failed to realize that the caste system was not as rigid as portrayed in the Sanskrit texts.

Battuta’s observation about the cities of India. 

(i) According to him, Indian cities had many exciting opportunities and are useful for those who had the necessary drive, skill and resources. 

(ii)The Indian cities were prosperous and densely populated. 

(iii)These cities had colourful market trading in different kinds of goods. 

(iv)Delhi was the largest city of India and had a lot of population. Daultabad was an another important city of India which challenged Delhi in size. 

(v)The cities were not only the centre of economic transactions but also the centres of ! social and cultural activities. 

(vii)Most of the bazars in the cities had temple and mosques. 

(viii)Cities also had fixed places for public performances by dancer, musicians and singer. He found that many towns derived their wealth and prosperity through the appropriation of surplus from villages. 

(ix)Indian goods were in great demand in west Asia and South-east Asia. So the artisans and merchants earned huge profit.

Battuta has given a detailed description on the practice of slavery prevalent in India. Delhi Sultan-Muhammad bin Tughlaq had a large number of slaves. Most of these slaves were forcibly captured during the aggressions. Many people sold their children as a slave, because of acute poverty. Slaves were also offered as a gift during this time. Battuta when visited him, also brought many horses, camels and slaves for the Sultan to present him. Sultan Muhammad bin Tuglaq, himself had presented two hundred slaves to Nasiruddin a religious preachr. 

Nobels are used to keep slave those days. Through these slaves, the Sultan used to get information about the activities of the noble and all other important events of the empire. The woman slaves served as servants in the house of the rich (nobles). These women informed the Sultan about the activities of their masters (i.e., nobles). Most of the slaves used to do domestic works and there was a lot of difference between the status of these slaves and the court slaves.

The practice of sati according to Bernier showed the difference in the treatment of women in western and eastern society. He noticed how a child widow were forcefully burnt screaming on the funeral pyre while many of the older women were resigned their fate. 

The following elements drew his attention.

 (i) Under this cruel practices an alive widow was forcibly made to sit on the pyre of her husband. 

(ii)People had no sympathy for her.

 (iii)The widow was an unwilling victim of the sati-practice. She was forced to be a Sati.

(i) surplus budget

(ii) balanced budget

(iii) deficit budget

• According to Bernier, the treatment of women in western and Eastern societies has a lot of difference. 
• Child widows were forcefully burnt screaming in agony.

• Jesuit Roberto Nobili - in 16th Cen. 
• Duarte Barbosa -Wrote about trade & society of Southern India

Yes. I agree with this statement. Because in the developed economy the role of government and the private sector is more desirable. There will be situations of the business cycle in such economies. General overproduction and underproduction are common features. On such occasions, the classical policy will not properly work. Keynesian ideas will help the proper functioning of the developed economies.

1. Al-Biruni came to India from Uzbekistan in the 11^th century.

2. Ibn Battuta came from Morocco in the 14^th century.

3. Francois Bemier from France came in the 17^th century

Since he was a linguist, he was able to compare many languages and make correct translations. He translated many Sanskrit books. He translated the Sanskrit grammar book by Patanjali into Arabic. He translated the books of Euclid, the Greek Mathematician, into Sanskrit for use by his Brahmin friends.

• Administration of Justice in India was as follows
• Crude and primitive in many ways - but also liberal and humane.
• Written complaints, cases were decided on the testimony of witnesses. 
• Criminal Law was mild.
• Brahmanas were exempted from taxation and capital punishment. 

1. Look for a  job 

2. Escape from natural disaster 

3. Merchants, traders, soldiers, pilgrims, priests. 

4. Spirit of adventure

Yes. An increase in government expenditure beyond certain limits leads to a fiscal deficit increased spending thus pumps too much money into the economy. It increases the purchasing power of the public. The ultimate result of this overspending or fiscal deficit is an increase in the price level. Thus, fiscal deficits are inflationary in nature.

When a government spends more than it collects by way of revenue, it incurs a budget deficit. There are various measures that capture government deficit and they have their own implications for the economy. 

The important concepts of deficits are discussed below.

Revenue Deficit: 

The revenue deficit refers to the excess of government’s revenue expenditure over revenue receipts.

Fiscal Deficit:

Fiscal deficit is the difference between the government’s total expenditure and its total receipts excluding borrowing.

Primary Deficit:

We must note that the borrowing requirement of the government includes interest obligations on accumulated debt. To obtain an estimate of borrowing on account of current expenditures exceeding revenues, we need to calculate what has been called the primary deficit. It is simply the fiscal deficit minus the interest payments.

Gross primary deficit = Gross fiscal deficit – net interest liabilities.

(a) Increases fiscal deficit.

(b) Gross fiscal deficit, = 3000 – (1500 + 600)

= 3000-2100 = 900

(c) Primary deficit is fiscal deficit minus the interest payments

ie, Primary deficit = fiscal deficit – Interest payments

• To same extent, the personal prejudices and interests of the travellers colour the versions given by them. 
• In associating the historical data, the writer has to be extremely impartial. 
• They wrote about social & cultural life in India during medieval period.