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Urbanisation: with the advent of economic development and industrialization, people tend to be more educated and started to believe in working together without discriminating others.

(i) Efforts of social reformers like Phule, Gandhiji, Ambedkar against caste system have helped to promote a casteless society. 

(ii) Economic development has reduced the emphasis on caste. 

(iii) Large sacle urbanisation has disminished the awareness of caste, as people rub shoulders in buses, trains and offices. 

(iv) Growth of literacy and education has helped to decrease the belief in caste. 

(v) Occupational Mobility: people got engaged in a globalized work culture that demanded to move to different paces and work. This invokes d the feeling of adapting others culture and respect towards it. 

(vi) Breaking of archaic norms: the position of landlords vanished, everyone was allowed to perform any work. 

(vii) Nowadays people have tended to be occupied with their own works. 

(viii) The constitution also states the philosophy against discrimination, and in some cases punishable too.

First State : This is also called the First Reading of the Bill. 

(i) The bill is introduced in either House. 

(ii) The bill can be introduced either by a Minister of the government or by a private member of the House. 

(iii) Introduction of the bill is accompanied by a statement of objects and reasons by the person who has introduced it. 

(iv) This bill and the statement are circulated among the members. If the House is in favour of the introduction of the Bill, it goes to the next stage. 

Second State : This is also called the Second Reading of the Bill. 

(i) A detailed clause by clause discussion on the bill takes place in the House. 

(ii) Some changes may be introduced in the bill. 

(iii) The bill may be referred to a small committee for more careful study. 

(iv) Further discussion on the bill may take place at this stage. Third Stage : This is also known as the Third Reading of the Bill. (i) At this state, the bill is put to vote in the House. (ii) If it gets the approval of the simple majority of members present in the House, it is considered as passed. 

Fourth Stage : Now the passed bill is sent to the other House for its approval. The other House may pass bill by a simple majority. 

Fifth Stage : When the bill is passed by both the Houses, it is inset to the Present gives his assent to the bill it becomes a law.

Elections are rightly said to be the barometer of democracy. 

(i) It is through elections that the people give expression to their opinion. 

(ii) It is through elections that the persons who have to work as representative of the people are identified. 

(iii) Any unpopular government can be unseated in an election. 

(iv) Elections are the time when it is possible to debate publicly on various socio-economic issues. Different issues and subjects of concern come to the fore. 

(v) The true character of social and political workers comes out during the lection campaign. The real worth of individuals can easily be adjudged. 

In short, a fair and free election is indicative of the healthy and robust democracy.

The Himalayas were formed earth’s movements which affected the relief of the earth is the last phase of its physical history. 

(i) The area where the Himalays stand today was occupied by a shallow elongated sea called Tethys which was sandwiched between two land masses - the Angara land in the north and Gondwana land in the south. 

(ii) The sea covered a large area from Indo-Myanmar border in the east, covering western Asia, northern and central parts of Africa to the Gulf of Guinea in the South Atalantica Ocean. 

(iii) For millions of years denudation of these two land masses resulted in deposition of silts into the sea. 

(iv) These giant land masses slowly moved towards each other, and this made the sea shrink. 

(v) If buckled up the sediments into mighty fold mountains. These mountains are called Himalays.

The year can be divided into the following four seasons on basis of the monsoon variations : 

(a) The Cold Weather Season - December to February. 

(b) The Hot Weather Season - March to May. 

(c) Advancing Monsoon Season - June to September. 

(d) The Retreating Monsoon - September, October and November. 

(a) The Cold Weather Season - December to February : The cold weather persists from December to February throughout India. January is the coldest month. Temperature varies from 10⁰ C to 25⁰ C. Temperature is between 10⁰ C to 15⁰ C in northern plains and 25⁰ C in southern parts of the country. There is high pressure in northern plains due to the cold climatic conditions. The cold dry winds blow from the high pressure towards the low pressure equatorial regions. These winds are north-westerly in the Ganga Plains and north-west part of India which receives rainfall from the Mediterranean cyclones. Second is the coast of Tamil Nadu which gets rainfall in winter because of the north-east winds which blow over the Bay of Bengal. But in other parts of country, the weather is pleasant with clear skies and bright sunshine.

Communalism can take various forms in politics: 

i. The routinely beliefs involve religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one’s religion over other religions. 

ii. A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one’s own religious community. 

iii. For those belonging to majority community, this takes the form of majoritarian dominance. For those belonging to the minority community, it can take the form of a desire to form a separate political unit. 

iv. Political mobilisation on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion together in the political arena. 

v. Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of communal violence, riots and massacre.

The makers of our Constitution were aware of this challenge. That is why they chose the model of a secular state. This choice was reflected in several constitutional provisions like-

i. There is no official religion for the Indian state. 

ii. The Constitution provides to all individuals and communities freedom to profess, practice and propagate any religion, or not to follow any. 

iii. The Constitution prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion. 

iv. At the same time, the Constitution allows the state to intervene in the matters of religion in order to ensure equality within religious communities. 

Social divisions affect politics both in negative as well as positive way. These are:

“Social divisions” affect politics in both negative ways and positive ways.If we observe social division and politics together at first sight;

(i) Itwouldappearthatthecombinationofpoliticsand social divisions is very dangerous and explosive.

(ii) Democracy involves competition among various political units/parties. Their competition tends to divide society.In case political parties start competing in terms of some prevalent social differences it can further lead to social conflict and disintegration of society.

India experiences the hot weather season from the month of March to May.

During this season, there is apparent Northward movement of the sun.

The hot weather season has the following characteristics:

(i) There is overall increase in temperature e.g. the temperature of Northern plains is between 42 to 45°C and in the Deccan plateau between 35 to 38°C.

(ii) An elongated low-pressure area develops from Thar Desert (in North-West) to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau (in East and South-East) towards the end of May. From this low-pressure belt, the circulation of air begins.

(iii) In the Northern and North-Western plain, there is occurrence of‘Loo’- strong, hot, dry wind.

(iv) In the Northern India, there is common occurrence of dust storm in May.

(v) There is also occurrence of localised thunderstorms associated with violent winds, torrential downpours, often accompanied by hailstorm at some places (e.g. West Bengal).

Communal politics is based on the idea that religion is the principal basis of social community. It can take various forms in politics : 

(i) Communalism in everyday beliefs: The most common expression of communalism is in everyday beliefs. These routinely involve religious prejudices, stereotypes of religious communities and belief in the superiority of one's religion over other religions. 

(ii) Communalism as Majoritarian Dominance and Political Dominance: A communal mind often leads to a quest for political dominance of one's own religious community. For those belonging to majority community, this takes the form of "majoritarian dominance". For those belonging to the minority community, it can take the form of a desire to form a separate political unit. 

(iii) Communalism as Political Mobilisation : Political mobilisation on religious lines is another frequent form of communalism. This involves the use of sacred symbols, religious leaders, emotional appeal and plain fear in order to bring the followers of one religion togetherln the political arena. 

(iv) Communalism in the Form of Communal Violence : Sometimes communalism takes its most ugly form of commual violence, riots, and massacre. For instance, India and Pakistan suffered some of the worst communal riots at the time of Partition. 

(v) To sum up, communalism leads to the belief that people belonging to different religions cannot live as equal citizens within one nation. Either, one of them has to dominate the rest or they have to form different nations.

The mayor in this type of city is responsible for hiring and firing staff, may have veto power and is responsible for implementing legislation passed by the council. The mayor is responsible for ceremonial duties, and some cities may give the mayor legislative power as well.

(i) He acts as the chairperson of Municipal Corporation.

(ii) He presides over the meetings of the corporation and guides its deliberations.

(iii) He regulates the conduct of business at such meetings.

(iv) Mayor is also the proper channel of communication between the Commissioner and the state government.

The women’s question arose in India as part of the 19th century middle class social reform movements. They were termed as middle class reform movements because many of these reformers were from the newly emerging western educated Indian middle class. They were often inspired by the democratic ideals of the modern west as well as the past democratic traditions of India. 

• Candle and torch light processions 
• use of black cloth 
• street theatres 
• songs, poetry 

(i) The substance getting oxidised is H₂.
(ii) The substance getting reduced is CuO.
(iii) CuO is the oxidising agent.
(iv) H₂ is the reducing agent.
(v) Since oxidation and reduction is taking place simultaneously, this reaction is an example of redox reaction.

• transformation of a non-commodity into a commodity 
• things that were earlier not traded in the market became commodities eg sale of kidneys, labour skills etc.

Explain how a market becomes commodity. 

• The growing market for international tourism suggests how culture itself may become a commodity. 
• Annual fair at Pushkar, pastoralists and traders come to from distant places to buy and sell camels and other live stocks. 
• It is also marketed internationally as a major tourist attraction. 
• Hindu pilgrims, camel traders and foreign tourists mingle at this event exchanging not only livestock and money but also cultural symbols and religious merit.

• Private companies especially foreign firms are encouraged to invest in sectors earlier reserved for the government including telecom, civil, aviation, etc. 
• Licenses are no longer required to open industries. 
• Foreign products are now easily available in Indian shops. 
• Privatization of public sector or government companies. 
• The government is trying to sell its share in several public sector companies. This process is known as disinvestment. For example Modern Foods. 
• More and more companies are reducing the number of permanent employees and outsourcing their work. 
• Liberalisation and privatization appears to be associated with rising income inequality.

Since people used excessive fertilisers in the fields, they were carried down to the lake during rains. As many fertilisers contain phosphates and nitrates, the water body became enriched with these chemicals. These chemicals in turn promoted excessive growth of aquatic plants and the surface of water was completely covered with plants (eutrophication). Lack of light in the water body and insufficient availability of dissolved oxygen and nutrients resulted in the death of fish.

• task of the manager to control workers and get more work out of them 
• extending the working hours and organising work 
• production is speeded up through scientific management and assembly line 
• work is broken down into its smallest repetitive elements and divided between workers 
• use of machinery actually deskills workers 
• time slavery in IT sector 
• Home-based work is an important part of the economy. This includes the manufacture of lace, zari or brocade, carpets, bidis, agarbattis and many such products. This work is mainly done by women and children. An agent provides raw materials and also picks up the finished product. Home workers are paid on a piece-rate basis, depending on the number of pieces they make. 
• Mining-bas working conditions, dangerous for both overground and underground mines.

The rituals have secular dimensions as distinguished from secular goals by :

Provides occasion to socialize with friends and kin, to show off wealth and style to enhance social status. Rituals have a new dimension of social, economic and political status for e.g. no. of VIPs attending wedding provide the index to the household’s standing in the local community. 

M.S.A. Rao identified the impact of urban influence on many Indian villages. 

• Villages where sizebale population are employed in far off cities or in overseas towns, leaving behind the members of their families in their natal villages. For example many overseas migrants from villages of Gujarat living in African or British towns have built fashionable houses in their natal villages and invested money on land and industry. 
• Villages situated near industrial towns like Bhilai and Bokaro are totally uprooted while the lands of others are partially acquired. When an industrial town like Bhilai comes up in midst of the villages some villages are totally uprooted while the land of many others are partially acquired. 
• The growth of metropolitan cities impacts the surrounding villages where few are totally absorbed in the process of expansion only the land of many others, excluding the inhabited area, is used for urban development. For example Delhi, Mumbai. 

Secularisation has usually meant a process of decline in the influence of religion. With the advent of modernisation attitude have changed to religion and to the celebration of festivals. As a result of the mushrooming of urban areas and lifestyles, celebration of festivals and following rituals has become a necessary part of one’s identity. Thus, the emphasis on rituals is to attain the secular goal of asserting one’s cultural identity. Rituals also provide men and women with occasions for socialising with their peers and for showing family wealth. Thus, apart from one’s identity, the status, political and economic dimensions of rituals has become increasingly important.

Social change is continuous and ongoing. The broad historical processes of social change are the sum total of countless individual and collective actions gathered across time and space. Social movement are directed towards some specific goals. It involves long and continuous social effort and action by people. 

Example of social change- Sanskritisation and Westernisation and; example of social movement- 19^th century social reformers’ efforts to change society.

Famous sociologist Harry Braverman argues that the use of machinery actually deskills workers. For example, whereas earlier architects and engineers had to be skilled draughtsmen, now the computer does a lot of the work for them.

The South Asian colonial city had European towns that comprised of spacious bungalows, elegant apartment houses, planned streets, trees on both sides of the street, clubs for afternoon and evening get togethers. The open space was reserved for Western recreational facilities such as race and golf courses, soccer and cricket. When domestic water supply, electric connections and sewage links were available or technically possible, the European towns utilised them fully, whereas their use was restricted to the native town. 

• universalization of citizenship rights and the induction of cultural pluralities into the democratic process of open and competitive politics would evolve new, civic equations among ethnic communities, and between them and state. 

Features of new farmer’s movements- 

• movements were regionally organised 
• were non-party 
• involved farmers rather than peasants (farmers are said to be market
• involved as both commodity producers and purchasers) 
• basic ideology of the movement was strongly anti-state and anti-urban  

Capitalist Empire Building was applicable in the case of India.

British colonialism which was based on capitalism directly interfered to ensure greatest profit and benefit to British capitalism. Every policy was geared towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. It changed the law of the land. 

It changed not just land ownership laws but decided even what crops would be grown and what ought not to be. It altered the way production and distribution of goods took place. It` meddled with the manufacturing sector. It entered forests and cleared trees and started plantations. It brought the forests acts that changed the lives of pastoralists. 

• It means that very few people have the experience of employment in large firms where they get to meet people from other regions and backgrounds. Urban settings do provide a corrective to this i.e. neighbours in the city could be from different regions; but by and large, work for most Indians is still in small scale workplaces. 
• In small workplaces, personal relationships help determine many aspects of work. If the employer likes you, you may get a salary hike and if you have a fight with him/her, you may lose your job. This is different from large scale organisations where there are well-defined rules, where recruitment is more transparent and there are mechanisms for complaints and redressal if you disagree with your immediate superior. 
• Very few Indians have access to secure jobs with benefits. Of those who do, two thirds work for the government. This is why government jobs are so popular. The rest are forced to depend on their children in their old age. 
• Very few people in India are members of trade unions, a feature of the organised sector. Thus, they don’t have the experience of collectively fighting for proper wages and safe working conditions. The government has laws to monitor the working conditions of unorganised sector, but in practice they are left to the whims and fancies of the employer or contractor.

Capitalist Empire Building was applicable in the case of India.

British colonialism which was based on capitalism directly interfered to ensure greatest profit and benefit to British capitalism. Every policy was geared towards the strengthening and expansion of British capitalism. It changed the law of the land. 

It changed not just land ownership laws but decided even what crops would be grown and what ought not to be. It altered the way production and distribution of goods took place. it meddled with the manufacturing sector. It entered forests and cleared trees and started plantations. It brought the forests acts that changed the lives of pastoralists. 

Redemptive- This type of social movement aims to bring about a change in the personal consciousness and actions of its individual members. For instance, people in the Ezhava community in Kerala were led by Narayan Guru to change their social practices.

Reformist- This type of social movement strives to change the existing social and political arrangements through gradual, incremental steps. The 1960s movement for the reorganisation of Indian states on the basis language and the recent Right to Information campaign are examples of reformist movements. 

Revolutionary- This type of social movement attempts to radically transform social relations, often by capturing state power. The Bolshevik revolution in Russia that deposed the Tsar to create a communist state and the Naxalite movement in India that seeks to remove oppressive landlords and state officials can be described as revolutionary movements.

The difference between a cash transaction & credit transaction is the timing of the payment. A cash transaction is a transaction where payment is settled immediately. On the other hand, payment for a credit transaction is settled at a later date. For example, Ramesh buys grocery and makes payment immediately in cash it will be known as a cash transaction. However, if he makes the payment on a later date it will be known as a credit transaction.

Advantages of an email: 

1. It is a fast method of communication. 

 2. It is an inexpensive method of communication. 

3. As compared to traditional sources of communication, there is little chance of loss in transmission. 

They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as other quality of cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms.

(a) Parasitism 

(b) Mutualism 

(c) Commensalism 

(d) Brood parasitism

Let a be any positive odd integer and b = 6. Then, by Euclid’s algorithm, a = 6q + r, for some integer q ≥ 0 and 0 ≤ r < 6.
i.e., the possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Thus, a can be of the form 6q, or 6q + 1, or 6q + 2, or 6q + 3, or 6q + 4, or 6q + 5, where q is some quotient.
Since a is an odd integer, so a cannot be of the form 6q, or 6q + 2, or 6q +4 (since they are even).
Thus, a is of the form 6q + 1, 6q + 3, or 6q + 5, where q is some integer.

Hence, any odd positive integer is of the form 6q + 1 or 6q + 3 or 6q + 5 where q is some integer.

a and b are two positive integers such that the least prime factor of a is 3 and the least prime factor of b is 5. Then least prime factor of (a + b) is 2.

(i) Favourable outcomes are 1, 3, 5, 7 i.e. outcomes.

P(an odd number) = 4/8 or 1/2

(ii) Favourable outcomes are 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, i.e., 5 outcomes

P(a number greater than 3) = 5/8

(iii) Favourable outcomes are 1, 2, 3.....,8

P(a number less than 9) = 8/8 = 1

Oviduct: 

Carries egg to the womb/ uterus through a thin oviduct or fallopian tube.The two oviducts unite into an elastic bag-like structure known as the uterus.

The urethra’s main responsibility is to let urine pass from the bladder out of the body. This is done when the brain tells the bladder when it’s time to squeeze and the sphincter muscle to relax, releasing urine through the urethra.

Testicles are oval-shaped organs which are located in the scrotum, just behind the penis and right in front of the anus on male humans. The main function of the testes is producing and storing sperm.

Function of ovaries - 

i) The ovaries produce and release eggs (oocytes). 

ii) They also produce the female hormones estrogen and progesterone.

A biological process in which the fusion of the male and the female gamete occurs is called fertilization. The sperms are released from the male reproductive organ called the penis. The sperm enters the female body through one of the parts of her reproductive organ called the vagina. Then the sperm travels through the fallopian tubes and meets the egg produced by the female organs. The process of fertilization takes place in fallopian tubes.

If the wholesaler is eliminated, the manufacturers will face the following difficulties: 

(a) Unable to facilitate large scale production: If the wholesaler is eliminated, manufacturers will not be able to collect small orders from number of retailers and undertake purchases in bulk quantities. 

(b) Unable to bear risk: The wholesale merchants deal in goods in their own name, take delivery of the goods and keep the goods purchased in large lots in their warehouses. They bear lots of risks such as the risk of fall in prices, theft, pilferage, spoilage, etc. In their absence, manufacturers will have to assume such risks. 

(c) No Financial assistance: The wholesalers provide financial assistance to the manufacturers in the sense that they generally make cash payment for the goods purchased by them, hence, reducing the working capital requirement of manufacturer. In their absence, a large part of the manufacturer’s working capital will remain blocked till all goods are sold. 

(d) Lack of Expert advice: If the wholesaler is eliminated, manufacturers will not remain updated about the changes customers’ tastes and preferences, market conditions, competition, etc. this information which is essential for regulating production will not be available. 

(e) No help in marketing function: By collecting orders from retailers and supplying goods to them, the wholesaler allows the manufacturer in concentrating on production rather than marketing activities. In absence of wholesalers, the manufacturers will need to market products as well. 

(f) Unable to facilitate continuity: The wholesalers facilitate continuity of production activity throughout the year by purchasing the goods as and when these are produced. In their absence, the manufacturers will need to regulate and control production in lean season. 

(g) Storage: If the wholesaler is eliminated, manufacturer will face the problem of storing goods. They will need to arrange for storage of goods from production till actual demand season, by engaging warehouses on their own.

Foetus: An unborn offspring, from the embryo stage (the end of the eighth week after conception, when the major structures have formed) until birth.

Animals show different methods of production of young ones. Oviparous and viviparous are such two methods. 

The main difference between oviparous and viviparous animals is that oviparous animals do not undergo any embryonic development inside the mother whereas viviparous animals develop into a young animal inside the mother. This means oviparous animals lay eggs. These eggs develop and hatch into young individuals. In contrast, viviparous animals are born as live young individuals. Therefore, they do not lay eggs. Birds, reptiles, amphibians, most fish, insects, mollusks, arachnids, and monotremes are oviparous animals. Most mammals are viviparous animals.

(a) Departmental Undertakings

(b) Government Undertakings

(c) Statutory Corporations

(d) Government Companies

(e) Departmental Undertakings

(f) Statutory Corporations

Metamorphosis is a process by which animals undergo extreme, rapid physical changes some time after birth. The result of metamorphosis may be change to the organism’s entire body plan, such as a change in the animal’s number of legs, its means of eating, or its means of breathing.

Examples of Metamorphosis 

Butterflies, Frogs, Fish

(a) Lactobacillus 

(b) Trichoderma polysporum 

(c) Fungus 

(d) Penicillin

Gel electrophoresis.

The three ways in which e-banking can be conducted are given below 

(a) Automated Teller Machine (ATM): An ATM is a computerized machine that provides the bank customers with the facility of accessing their accounts with a magnetically encoded plastic card along with a code number. It provides facility of 24*7 banking and allows customers to make several transactions without the teller, such as- withdrawing cash, making deposits, paying bills, obtaining bank account balances, transaction history, etc. 

(b) Debit cards: A debit card is an electronic card issued by a bank that allows the customer to withdraw cash from his account and pay for goods and services. A customer can withdraw cash by swiping the card in an ATM and make payments by swiping the card at merchant card POS machines. The amount utilized gets deducted from the account of the customer. 

(c) Credit Cards: It is a plastic card issued by a bank or financial institution, allowing the holder to make payments for goods and services. It has a pre- determined maximum credit limit within which the customer can borrow in a given period for making payments. A customer can make payments by swiping the card at the merchant POS machine. The customer has to make the payment for the credit limit utilized to the issuing authority after a specified time period. 

(d) Internet Banking: It refers to making banking transactions directly with the bank through the internet. This facility allows the customer to carry out their banking transactions such as payments of bills, transferring to other accounts, opening fixed deposits, etc, from the comfort of their homes, using the internet. It is also called web banking or online banking. 

(e) Mobile Banking: It is a facility that allows the bank’s customers to perform banking transactions using their mobiles. A user can perform all the transactions as in internet banking, through his mobile. He needs an internet connection on his mobile to access his bank account.

(a) Parasitism 

(b) Mutualism 

(c) Commensalism 

(d) Brood parasitism