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(i) With social and cultural development, humans develop better and more efficient technology. They create new possibilities with the environment. 

(ii) Nature provides opportunities and humans avail of these opportunities. It is called possibilism. Nature gives an opportunity and man sustains it. In this way gradually nature gets humanised and starts bearing the imprint of human endeavour. 

(iii) There are many examples: The human activities create cultural landscape, health resorts on highlands, huge urban sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures.

Bhopal, Indore and Jabalpur

The foundational challenge includes:

(i) Making the transition to democracy and then instituting democratic government.

(ii) Involves bringing down the existing non-democratic regime, and keeping the military away from controlling the government.

(iii) Establishing a sovereign and functional state.

Credit is an agreement in which lender supplies the borrowers with money, goods and services in return for the promise of future payment.

There are a two main sources of credit in India:

(i) Formal sources - e.g. Banks, Cooperatives

(ii) Informal sources - e.g. Money lenders, traders.

The advantages of formal sources of credit are

(i) It provides loans at a fixed rates and terms.

(ii) It gives loans not just to profit-making businesses and traders but also to small cultivators, small-scale industries to small borrowers etc.

(iii) Cost of borrowing is less and hence promote borrowing and more economic growth.

(iv) There is no exploitation as in the case with the informal sectors.

(i) Vishakhapatnam 

(ii) Vijayawada

Public Works Department (PWD).

(i) India is one of the world’s wind superpower at present.
(ii) The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagercoil to Madurai.
(iii) Apart from there, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Lakshadweep have important wind farms.
(iv) Nagercoil and Jaisalmer are well known for the effective use of wind energy in the country.
(v) Since India has a long coastline, the coasts can easily be used for setting up effective windmills.

Very often different constituent units of the federation have unequal powers. Some units are granted special powers. This might have been done to protect the regional autonomy of the concerned unit/state.
(i) All states in the Indian Union do not have identical powers. Some states enjoy a special status like Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh.
(ii) Jammu and Kashmir has its own constitution. Many provisions of the Indian constitution are not applicable here. An approval of the state assembly of Jammu and Kashmir is required to enforce the provisions of the Indian constitution.
(iii) Indians, who are not the permanent residents of this state cannot buy land or house here. Similar special provisions exist in some other states of India as well.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is Government of India's flagship programme for achievement of Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) in a time bound manner, as mandated by 86th amendment to the Constitution of India making free and compulsory Education to the Children of 6-14 years age group, a Fundamental Right.

SSA is being implemented in partnership with State Governments to cover the entire country and address the needs of 192 million children in 1.1 million habitations.

The programme seeks to open new schools in those habitations which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen existing school infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water, maintenance grant and school improvement grants.

(i) When religion becomes the basis of nation, it becomes communalism.
(ii) When people of one religion consider themselves as Superior to other religions, the problem of communalism erupts.
(iii) This problem of communalism takes another sharp turn when it gets mixed with politics.

(iv) The state power is used to establish domination of one-religious group over the other religion.
(v) The manner in which religion is used in politics is called ‘communal politics’.
(vi) Sometimes people also use politics to express their needs, interests as member of a particular religious community.

The following factors determine the economic viability of a mineral resource. 

If these conditions are met a mineral reserve can be turned into a mine:

a. The concentration of mineral in the ore.

b. The ease of extraction. 

c. Proximity to the market. 

The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a part of the oldest landmass. The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills. This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau. The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands. The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the south of the river Narmada.

Merits of One Party System

• Since there is only one political party in the country, decisions are taken quickly without any discussions and delays.
• Not only decisions are taken quickly but these are also implemented at a rapid speed as there are no other political parties to oppose the implementation of laws.
• One party system provides stable political growth of the country.
• No money and time is wasted on political campaigns.

Demerits

• Democracy suffers in the country which has a one party system. Since there are no other political parties, the ruling party takes all decisions arbitrarily without any discussions or deliberations.
• The minority section of the society suffers under the one party system as their views, opinion and welfare is neglected.
• Generally people have no rights and freedoms in the country which have one party system.

Orissa is the largest producer of manganese ore in India. Four uses of manganese are:

1. It is used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro manganese alloy.
2. It is also used in iron industries as it is used in the manufacturing of iron.
3. It is used in the manufacturing of bleaching powder.
4. It is used in the manufacturing of insecticides and pesticides.

These activities are the primary responsibility of the government.

These activities need spending of large sums of money, which is beyond the capacity of the private sector. Also, collecting money from thousands of people who use these facilities is not easy. Even if they do provide these things they would charge a high rate for their use. So governments have to undertake heavy spending and ensure that these facilities are available to everyone.

• Sometimes government in order to support the private sector has to take up the activities like selling electricity at generation cost. 
• Spending on health and education is necessary as it is the primary responsibility of the government.

(i) We can understand the necessity of political parties by imagining a situation without parties. Every candidate in the elections will be independent. So no one will be able to make any promises to the people about any major policy changes. 

(ii) Elected representatives will be accountable to their constituencies for what they do in the localities. But no one will be responsible for how the country runs. 

(iii) India also has non-party based elections to the Panchayats in many states. Although parties do not contest formally, it is generally noticed that the village splits into more than one faction, each of which puts up a ‘panel’ of its candidates. This is exactly what the party does. That is why, we have political parties in almost all the countries in the world. 

(iv) The rise of political parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies. Large scale societies need representative democracy. Large societies need some ways to bring various representatives together so that a responsible government can be formed. Thus, we can say that parties are a necessary condition for a democracy.

(i) AIIMS: This is All India Institute of Medical Sciences to provide quality health services at a reasonable rate. It was the main purpose of government besides quality medical education.
(ii) Indian Railways: Only the government can invest a large sum of money on a public project with long gestation period, and also to ensure and provide transportation at cheap rates.
(iii) Electronic Power Generation by NTPC: The government has taken this up to provide electricity at a reasonable rate to consumers.

To protect the producers within the country from foreign competition.

Credit refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with credit refers to an agreement in which the lender supplies the borrower with money, goods or services in return for the promise or future payment.

(i) Example of Credit as an Asset: During the festival season, a shoe manufacturer has received an order of making shoes in bulk, within a month’s time. To complete production, he hired some extra workers and had to purchase the raw material. He asked the supplier to supply leather then and promised to pay him later. Then he took some advance payment from the trader. By the end of the month, he was able to deliver the order, make a good profit and repaid the money he had borrowed.

(ii) Example of Credit as Debt Trap: A farmer picks up the loan from a moneylender to meet the expenses of cultivation. But unfortunately, the crop is hit by the pests and fails. So he is unable to repay the loan and debt grows larger with interest. Next year, he picks up a fresh loan and is able to have a normal crop that year. But earnings are not enough to pay the earlier debt. So he is caught in a debt trap. He can repay the loan, only after selling a part of the land. In the shoemaker’s case, credit plays a vital and positive role, whereas, in farmer’s case, credit pushes the borrower into a situation from which recovery is very painful. money, goods or services in return for the promise or future payment.

Barter is a system of exchange in which goods are directly exchanged without the use of money.

International trade has three important aspects as follows: 

(i) Volume of Trade: The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up the volume, however services traded can not be measured in tonnage. So, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the volume of trade. 

(ii) Composition of Trade: It refers to the items of which trade consists of. The nature of goods and services imported and exported by countries have undergone changes during the last century. Trade of primary products was dominant in the beginning of the last century. 

(iii) Direction of Trade: It refers to the countries with which a country has trade relations. Like India’s majority of trade was with U.K. during colonial rule. The developing countries of the present used to export valuable goods and artefacts etc. which were exported to European countries. European countries started exporting manufactured goods in exchange of food stuffs and raw materials from their colonies. Europe, USA and Japan emerged as major trade blocs in the world and leader in the trade of manufactured goods.

Globalisation and competition among producers are beneficial to consumers: 

(i) Globalisation and greater competition among producers, both local and foreign producers have been of advantage to consumers.

(ii) There is a greater choice for consumers.

(iii) Then enjoy an improved quality and lower prices for several products.

(iv) They enjoy much higher standards of living that were possible earlier.

(i) Elandloom sector is labour-intensive and provides employment to semi skilled workers. 

(ii) It requires small capital investment.

(iii) This sector involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the fabrics.

Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people.

Roman Catholic Church imposed control over publishers and booksellers – It was feared that if there was no control over what was printed and read then rebellious and irreligious thought might spread.

Following conditions were viewed as obstacles to economic exchanges and growth by the new commercial classes. 

(i) There was an enormous increase in population.

(ii) The feudal system, serfdom, and manorial class were taxing for the poor landless peasants. 

(iii) There were no standardized weights and measures and neither a common national currency.

(iv) There was an increased taxation, censorship, forced recruitment into the French armies to conquer Europe.

(v) There was no freedom to peasants, artisans, workers and new businessmen.

Based on their origin, resources can be classified into biotic and abiotic resources. Biotic resources are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings, flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock, etc. Abiotic resources are composed of non-living things, e.g. rocks and metals.

Novels use vernacular –

Because it is spoken by the common people.

Detailed Answer : 

Manocchio, an Italian miller, reinterpreted the Bible in a different way. Such instances worried the Church about people reading the various interpretations of the religion and questioning the Church. Hence, Church imposed severe controls over publishers and booksellers and start maintaining an index of prohibited books.

Petroleum and petroleum products are imported in large scale because their demands are increased due to rising of industrialisation and better standard of living.

Consumer awareness in India faced the following obstacles for which it had not been an easy growth: 

(i) The consumer redressal process is becoming cumbersome, expensive and time consuming. 

(ii) Many times, consumers are required to engage a lawyer. 

(iii) These cases require time for filing and attending the court proceedings etc. 

(iv) In most purchases, cash memos are not issued, hence, evidence is not easy to gather. 

(v) Moreover, most purchases in the market are small retail sales. 

(vi) The existing laws also are not very clear on the issue of compensation to consumers injured by defective products.

• Measures taken in majoritarianism gradually increased the feeling of alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils.
• They felt that the constitution and government policies denied them equal political rights, discriminated against them in getting jobs and other opportunities and ignored their interests.
• As a result, the relations between Sinhalas and Tamil communities got strained over time.
• The Sri Lankan Tamils launched parties and struggles for the recognition of Tamil as an official language, regional autonomy and equality of opportunities in getting education and jobs.
• By the 1980s, several political organisations were formed demanding an independent Tamil Elam (state) in northern and eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
• The distrust between the two communities turned into widespread conflict. It soon turned into a civil war. As a result, thousands of people of both the communities were killed.

 Value – 

(i) Welfare, 

(ii)Providing goods & services to general public which are for collective consumption like construction of roads, street lighting, health , education etc. 

(iii)It makes things affordable for the general public. 

(iv)To maintain national & strategic values like law & order, defence etc.

Two measures to correct it 

Fiscal policy measures; 

(i) Public Expenditure:- Government reduces public expenditure at the time of inflation , so that excess purchasing power of people can be reduced & thus excess demand can be curtailed. During deflation government incurs more expenditure so that people have extra money to increase AD. 

(ii) Policy of direct taxes: Government increases direct taxes to reduce extra purchasing power of the people to control inflation & reduces direct taxes to provide extra money to people during deflation.

The consumer movement is truly arose out of dissatisfaction of the consumers. 

(i) As many unfair practices were being indulged in by the sellers. 

(ii) There was no legal system available to the consumers to protect them from exploitation in the market place. 

(iii) In India, the consumer movement as a ‘social force’ originated with the necessity of protecting and promoting the interest of consumers against unethical and unfair practices. 

(iv) Rampant food shortage, hoardings, black marketing, adulteration of food and edible oil gave birth to the consumer movement in an organised form in the 1960s.

Trade between two countries is called International trade. International Trade of a country is an index for its economic prosperity. It is considered as the economic barometer for a country. International trade helps in exchange of surplus goods with those of deficit countries through foreign trade. Features of India’s International Trade:

 (i) International trade has helped India in increasing its productivity and improving quality of its products and then exporting the manufactured goods. 

 (ii) India exports agriculture and allied products, ores and minerals gems and jewellery, chemical and allied products, engineering goods and petroleum products.

 (iii) The commodities imported to India include petroleum and petroleum products, pearls and precious stones, inorganic chemicals, coke and briquettes and machinery.

• The growing consumption of energy has resulted in the country becoming increasingly dependent on fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas.
• Rising prices of oil and gas and their potential shortages have raised uncertainties about the security of energy supply in future, which has serious repercussions on the growth of the national economy.
• Increasing use of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental problems.
• Hence, there is a primary need to use renewable energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, biomass and energy from waste material. They are called non-conventional sources of energy.

Arid soils have surface horizons with several unique characteristics. Arid soil can be classified as a group of soils belonging to the aridisol order of USDA classification. 

Some important characteristics of arid soil are:

• The soil red and brown in colour.
• It is sandy in texture.
• It is saline in nature and lacks humus and moisture.
• Arid soils contain a substantial amount of soluble salts. 
• It is alkaline in nature because there is no rain to wash soluble salts.
• These soils are very infertile in nature.

The five reasons for water pollution in India are as follow:

(i) Sewage And Waste Water: Sewage, garbage and liquid waste of households, agricultural lands and factories are discharged into lakes and rivers. These wastes contain harmful chemicals and toxins which make the water poisonous for aquatic animals and plants.

(ii) Industrial Waste: Industrial waste contains pollutants like asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals which are extremely harmful to both people and environment. Industrial waste is discharged into lakes and rivers by using fresh water making the water contaminated.

(iii) Households: Man uses water for drinking, preparation of food, bathing for cleaning the house, etc. Most of the used water is drained out through municipal drains and poured into a river or’lake.

(iv) Offshore drilling and oil spills: Exploring for oil and gas under the seabed, involves some risks to the marine environment. The consequences of oil spills is of great environment concern.

(v) Nuclear wastes: Nuclear power plants, nuclear weapon testing, laboratories where isotopes are used are sources of nuclear waste which can pollute the entire water sources of ajegion.

Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate measures to conserve and manage it, has resulted in land degradation.

India’s degraded land:

At present there is about 130 million hectares of degraded land in India. Approximately, 28 per cent of it belongs to the category of forest degraded area. 56 per cent of it is water eroded area. The rest is affected by saline and alkaline deposits. Some human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly to land degradation.

Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called ‘placer deposits’ and generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals. 

i. The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases. 

ii. The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners. 

iii. The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining. Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil and increase in stream and river pollution.

(i) Deepening of democracy involves strengthening of the institutions and practice of democracy.

(ii) This should happen in such a way that people can realise their expectations of democracy.

(iii) In general terms, it usually mean strengthening those institutions that help people’s participation and control.

(iv) This requires an attempt to bring down the control and influence of the rich and powerful people in making governmental decisions.

(v) It wants more people’s participation and control. They want to bring down the control of rich and powerful people in making of the governmental decision.

(i) Sri Lanka emerged as an independent country in 1948. The leaders of the Sinhala Community sought to secure dominance over government by virtue of their majority. 

(ii) As a result, the democratically elected government adopted majoritarian measures to establish Sinhala Supremacy. 

(iii) In 1956, an act was passed to recognise Sinhala as the only official language, thus disregarding Tamil.

(iv) The government followed policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs.

(v) With a new constitution, Buddhism was adopted as a state religion. 

Results of Civil War

(i) The distrust between Sinhala and Tamil communities has increased.

(ii) Thousands of people of both the communities have been killed. 

(iii) Many families were forced to leave the country as refugees.

(iv) Many lost their livelihoods. 

(v) Civil war has caused a terrible setback to the social-cultural and economic life of the country.

Minerals are indispensable part of our lives 

(i) Almost everything we use, from tiny pin to towering building or a big ship, all are made from minerals.

(ii) The railway line and tarmac (paving) of the roads are made from minerals. 

(iii) Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are manufactured from minerals and run on power resources derived from the earth.

(iv) Even the food that we eat has certain minerals.

(v) In all stages of development, human beings have used minerals for their livelihood, decoration, festivities, religious and ceremonial rites.

Increase indirect taxes on these products.

Classification of resources on the basis of origin –

Biotic and Abiotic