Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

(d) Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

The correct answer is Mahatma Gandhi.

• Harijan Sevak Sangh was organized by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 as a part of his constructive program for the removal of untouchability.

• Its parent organization was the All India Anti Untouchability League founded by Mahatma Gandhi earlier on 30 September 1932. 
• This was later renamed Harijan Sevak Sangh. 
• Its first president was Ghanshyam Das Birla and the secretary was Amritlal Takkar.
•  It still exists as a non – governmental organization working for the welfare of Harijan or Dalit people and upliftment of the Depressed Class of India.

The strategies for empowerment of women can be classified as legal, social and economic.

1. Legal Strategies: After Independence, several laws were drafted with the aim to treat women on par with men. 

Some of the legislation are as follows:

• Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 
•  Hindu Succession Act of 1956. 
• Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956. 
• Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act 1984 
• Domestic Violence Act 2005 etc.

2. Social Strategies: 

Social strategies are as follows:

• Establishment of Women Welfare Services. 
• Legal literacy of women through mass media. 
• Help of neighbours to be sought in the cases of abused women.
• Conducting public education and awareness programmes in order to help women. 
• Males are also to be educated to realize their new roles in the changed times and the necessity of their own contribution to family life.

3. Economic Strategies: 

Economic strategies are as follows:

1. Educational and vocational training for women which will enable them to seek jobs and become economically dependent. 

2. Technological aids that will be labor-saving devices and will lighten women’s burden, of heavy daily tasks. 

3. Training for women in both formal and non-formal education. 

4. Credit facilities to start small-scale industries/self employment. 

5. Programmes of placing women in important positions at various levels.

The strategies for empowerment of women can be classified as legal, social and economic.

1. Legal Strategies: After Independence, several laws were drafted with the aim to treat women on par with men. 

Some of the legislation are as follows:

1. Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 

2. Hindu Succession Act of 1956. 

3. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956. 

4. Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act 1984 

5. Domestic Violence Act 2005 etc.

2. Social Strategies: 

Social strategies are as follows:

• Establishment of Women Welfare Services.
• Legal literacy of women through mass media. 
• Help of neighbours to be sought in the cases of abused women. 
• Conducting public education and awareness programmes in order to help women. 
• Males are also to be educated to realize their new roles in the changed times and the necessity of their own contribution to family life.

3. Economic Strategies: 

Economic strategies are as follows:

1. Educational and vocational training for women which will enable them to seek jobs and become economically dependent. 

2. Technological aids that will be labor-saving devices and will lighten women’s burden, of heavy daily tasks. 

3. Training for women in both formal and non-formal education. 

4. Credit facilities to start small-scale industries/self employment. 

5. Programmes of placing women in important positions at various levels.

The strategies for empowerment of women can be classified as legal, social and economic.

1. Legal Strategies: After Independence, several laws were drafted with the aim to treat women on par with men.

Some of the legislation are as follows:

• Hindu Marriage Act of 1955. 
• Hindu Succession Act of 1956. 
• Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956. 
• Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act of 1984. 
• Domestic Violence Act 2005 etc.

2. Social Strategies: 

Social strategies are as follows:

• Establishment of Women Welfare Services. 
• Legal literacy of women through mass media.
• Help of neighbours to be sought in the cases of abused women. 
• Conducting public education and awareness programmes in order to help women. 
• Males are also to be educated to realize their new roles in the changed times and the necessity of their own contribution to family life.

3. Economic Strategies:

Economic strategies are as follows:

• Educational and vocational training for women which will enable them to seek jobs and become economically dependent. 
• Technological aids that will be labour saving devices and will lighten women’s burden, of heavy daily tasks. 
• Training for women in both formal and non-formal education. 
• Credit facilities to start small-scale industries/self employment. 
• Programmes of placing women in important positions at various levels.

1. Decrease in demographic profile 

2. Increase in education.

Demography is the systematic study of population. The term Demography is derived from two Greek words i.e. demos (people) and graphein (describe), implying the description of people. The term Demography was coined by Achille Guillard in 1855.

Demography studies the trends and processes associated with population including – changes in population size; patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions of women, men, and different age groups.

There are different varieties of demography, including Formal demography which is a largely quantitative field, and Social demography which focuses on the social, economic or political aspects of population. All demographic studies are based on processes of counting or enumeration – such as the census or the survey – which involve the systematic collection of data on the people residing within a specified territory.

In India, census was conducted by the British Indian government between 1867-72, and regular ten yearly (decennial) censuses have been, conducted since 1881. Independent India continued the practice, and seven decennial censuses have been conducted since 1951, the most recent being in 2011.

Demographic data are important for the planning and implementation of state policies, especially those for economic development and general public welfare.

The Major characteristics of the Demographic Profile of India:

1. Size and Growth of India’s population 

2. Age structure of the Indian population

3. Sex-Ratio in India. 

4. Birth rate and Death rate 

5. Increasing Literacy rate of the Indian population. 

6. Increasing Rural-Urban differences

1. Size and Growth of India’s Population: India is the second-most populous country in the world after China. According to the 2011 census, India’s population is 121 crores(1.21 billion). Between 1901-1951 the average annual growth rate did not exceed 1.33%, a modest rate of growth. In fact, between 1911 and 1921 there was a negative rate of growth of – 0.03%. This who because of the influenza epidemic during 1918-19.

The growth rate of population substantially increased after independence from British rule going up to 2.2% during 1961- 1981. Since then although the annual growth rate has decreased it remains one of the highest in the developing world.

2. Age structure of the Indian population: India has a very young population – that is, majority of Indians tend to be young, compared to most other countries. The share of the less than 15 age group in the total population has come down from its highest level of 42% in 1971 to 29% in 2011. The share of the 15-60 age group has increased from 53% to 63%, while the share of the 60+ age group is very small but it has begun to increase (from 5% to 8%) over the same period.

But the age composition of the Indian population is expected to change significantly in the next two decades. 0-14 age group will reduce its share by about 11% (from 34% in 2001 to 23% in 2026) while the 60 plus age group will increase its share by about 5% (from 8% in 2001 to about 12% in 2026).

3. The declining Sex-ratio in India: The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. The trends of the last four decades have been particularly worrying – from 941 in 1961 the sex ratio had fallen to an all time low of 927 in 1991 before posting a modest increase in 2001.

According to the Census of India 2011, sex ratio has increased and now it is 940 females per 1000 males. But what has real ly alarmed demographers, policy makers, social activists, and concerned Citizens is the drastic fall in the child sex ratio. The sex ratio for the 0 – 6 years age group (known as the juvenile or child sex ratio) has generally been substantially higher than the overall sex ratio for all age groups, but it has been falling very sharply.

In fact, the decade 1991-2001 represents an anomaly in that the overal 1 sex ratio has posted its highest ever increase of 6 points from the all-time low of 927 to 933, but the child sex ratio in 2011 census has dropped from 927 to 914, a plunge of 13 points taking it below the overall sex ratio for the first time.

4. Increasing literacy rate of Indian population: Literacy varies considerably across gender, regions, and social groups. The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels.

Female literacy rose by about 11.2 percent between 2001 and 201 compared to the rise in male literacy of 6.2 percent in the same period. Female literacy which was 8.9% in 1951, has increased to 65.4 in 2011. Male literacy in the same period was 27.2% which has increased to 82.17. Total literacy rate of 18.3% in 1951 has increased to 74.04 in 2011.

5. Increasing Rural-Urban differences: According to the 2011 Census, 68.8% of the population lives in rural areas while 31.2% people live in urban areas. The urban population has been increasing steadily, from about 17.3% in 1951 to 31.2 in 2011, an increase of about two-and-a-half times.

Demography is the systematic study of population. The term Demography is derived from two Greek words i.e. demos (people) and graphein (describe), implying the description of people. The term Demography was coined by Achille Guillard in 1855.

Demography studies the trends and processes associated with population including – changes in population size; patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions of women, men, and different age groups.

There are different varieties of demography, including Formal demography which is a largely quantitative field, and Social demography which focuses on the social, economic or political aspects of population. All demographic studies are based on processes of counting or enumeration – such as the census or the survey – which involve the systematic collection of data on the people residing within a specified territory.

In India, census was conducted by the British Indian government between 1867-72, and regular ten yearly (decennial) censuses have been, conducted since 1881. Independent India continued the practice, and seven decennial censuses have been conducted since 1951, the most recent being in 2011.

Demographic data are important for the planning and implementation of state policies, especially those for economic development and general public welfare.

The Major characteristics of the Demographic Profile of India:

1. Size and Growth of India’s population 

2. Age structure of the Indian population 

3. Sex-Ratio in India. 

4. Birth rate and Death rate 

5. Increasing Literacy rate of the Indian population. 

6. Increasing Rural-Urban differences

1. Size and Growth of India’s Population: India is the second-most populous country in the world after China. According to the 2011 census, India’s population is 121 crores(1.21 billion). Between 1901-1951 the average annual growth rate did not exceed 1.33%, a modest rate of growth. In fact, between 1911 and 1921 there was a negative rate of growth of – 0.03%.

This who because of the influenza epidemic during 1918-19. The growth rate of population substantially increased after independence from British rule going up to 2.2% during 1961- 1981. Since then although the annual growth rate has decreased it remains one of the highest in the developing world.

2. Age structure of the Indian population: India has a very young population – that is, majority of Indians tend to be young, compared to most other countries. The share of the less than 15 age group in the total population has come down from its highest level of 42% in 1971 to 29% in 2011.

The share of the 15-60 age group has increased from 53% to 63%, while the share of the 60+ age group is very small but it has begun to increase (from 5% to 8%) over the same period.

But the age composition of the Indian population is expected to change significantly in the next two decades. 0-14 age group will reduce its share by about 11% (from 34% in 2001 to 23% in 2026) while the 60 plus age group will increase its share by about 5% (from 8% in 2001 to about 12% in 2026).

3. The declining Sex-ratio in India: The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. The trends of the last four decades have been particularly worrying – from 941 in 1961 the sex ratio had fallen to an all-time low of 927 in 1991 before posting a modest increase in 2001.

According to the Census of India 2011, sex ratio has increased and now it is 940 females per 1000 males. But what has really alarmed demographers, policymakers, social activists and concerned Citizens is the drastic fall in the child sex ratio.

The sex ratio for the 0 – 6 years age group (known as the juvenile or child sex ratio) has generally been substantially higher than the overall sex ratio for all age groups, but it has been falling very sharply.

In fact, the decade 1991-2001 represents an anomaly in that the overal 1 sex ratio has posted its highest ever increase of 6 points from the all-time low of 927 to 933, but the child sex ratio in 2011 census has dropped from 927 to 914, a plunge of 13 points taking it below the overall sex ratio for the first time.

4. Increasing literacy rate of Indian population: Literacy varies considerably across gender, regions, and social groups. The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels.

Female literacy rose by about 11.2 percent between 2001 and 2011 compared to the rise in male literacy of 6.2 percent in the same period. Female literacy which was 8.9% in 1951, has increased to 65.4 in 2011. Male literacy in the same period was 27.2% which has increased to 82.17. Total literacy rate of 18.3% in 1951 has increased to 74.04 in 2011.

5. Increasing Rural-Urban differences: According to the 2011 Census, 68.8% of the population lives in rural areas while 31.2% people live in urban areas. The urban population has been increasing steadily, from about 17.3% in 1951 to 31.2 in 2011, an increase of about two-and-a-half times.

Kagodu movement is the movement of people who fought to claim their rights over land. It was first of its kind in the post independent India. Kagodu movement, or Kagodu Satyagraha as it is popularly called, took place in the Kagodu and neighbouring villages of Sagar taluk in the district of Shimoga.

In Kagodu, feudal system was prevalent during the time of the British rule. Jodidars, Inamdaars, Jahagirdars and the Desais were the local landlords. Tenants had to pay the landlords a fixed measure of the agricultural produce. Although this measure was fixed as sixty measures (60 kolaga). Kolaga is a traditional measure) in other places, the landlords of Kagodu had fixed the measure at sixty three.

During 1950-1951, the tenants agitated against the feudal lords to claim their rights over the land, and also to protest against fixing of excess of agricultural produce to be given by them to the landlords. This agitation began in the surrounding villages of Kagodu and was aimed at a single slogan ‘land to the tiller’. Villagers of Sooraguppe, Valakundli, Chikkanellooru, Maasooru, Kaanle, Tadegalale and keladi joined the agitation under the leadership of H. Ganapatiyappa, Shantaveri Gopalagowda, Sadashivaraya and many others. This agitation had the support of the great thinker and socialist.

Dr. Rammanohar Lohia. With his entry, the movement took a new turn. The ‘Kagodu Satyagraha’, which began immediately after independence, had drawn the attention of entire nation. The tenants involved themselves in the movement so deeply that, the government was forced to announce its decision to allot the land to the tiller. About two and a half decades later, ‘Land to the tiller’ was legalized and was introduced in the 20 point programme of the Government. The seeds of such a move were sown in the ‘Kagodu Satyagraha’.

The Major characteristics of the Demographic Profile of India: 

1. Size and Growth of India’s population.

2. Age structure of the Indian population. 

3. Sex-Ratio in India. 

4. Birth rate and Death rate. 

5. Increasing Literacy rate of the Indian population. 

6. Increasing Rural-Urban differences.

1. Size and Growth of India’s Population: India is the second-most populous country in the world after China. According to the 2011 census, India’s population is 121 crores(1.21 billion). Between 1901-1951 the average annual growth rate did not exceed 1.33%, a modest rate of growth. In fact between 1911 and 1921 there was a negative rate of growth of – 0.03%.

This was because of the influenza epidemic during 1918-19. The growth rate of the population substantially increased after independence from British rule going up to 2.2% during 1961- 1981. Since then although the annual growth rate has decreased it remains one of the highest in the developing world.

2. Age structure of the Indian population: India has a very young population – that is, the majority of Indians tend to be young, compared to most other countries. The share of the less than 15 age group in the total population has come down from its highest level of 42% in 1971 to 29% in 2011. The share of the 15-60 age group has increased from 53% to 63%, while the share of the 60+ age group is very small but it has begun to increase (from 5% to 8%) over the same period.

But the age composition of the Indian population is expected to change significantly in the next two decades. 0-14 age group will reduce its share by about 11% (from 34% in 2001 to 23% in 2026) while the 60 plus age group will increase its share by about 5% (from 8% in 2001 to about 12% in 2026).

3. The declining Sex-ratio in India: The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. The trends of the last four decades have been particularly worrying – from 941 in 1961 the sex ratio had fallen to an all-time low of 927 in 1991 before posting a modest increase in 2001.

According to the Census of India 2011, the sex ratio has increased and now it is 940 females per 1000 males. But what has really alarmed demographers, policymakers, social activists, and concerned Citizens is the drastic fall in the child sex ratio. The sex ratio for the 0 – 6 years age group (known as the juvenile or child sex ratio) has generally been substantially higher than the overall sex ratio for all age groups, but it has been falling very sharply.

In fact, the decade 1991-2001 represents an anomaly in that the overall 1 sex ratio has posted its highest ever increase of 6 points from the all-time low of 927 to 933, but the child sex ratio in 2011 census has dropped from 927 to 914, a plunge of 13 points taking it below the overall sex ratio for the first time.

4. Increasing literacy rate of Indian population: Literacy varies considerably across gender, regions, and social groups. The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels.

Female literacy rose by about 11.2 percent between 2001 and 2011 compared to the rise in male literacy of 6.2 percent in the same period. Female literacy which was 8.9% in 1951, has increased to 65.4 in 2011. Male literacy in the same period was 27.2% which has increased to 82.17. The total literacy rate of 18.3% in 1951 has increased to 74.04 in 2011.

5. Increasing Rural-Urban differences: According to the 2011 Census, 68.8% of the population lives in rural areas while 31.2% of people live in urban areas. The urban population has been increasing steadily, from about 17.3% in 1951 to 31.2 in 2011, an increase of about two-and-a-half times.

(a) Nasik and Gwalior

Mhatma Gandhi established Harijan Sewak sangh .

1. Loan Recovery Issue and Banning Corrupt Officials and Politicians into Villages: KRRS took up this issue and led the farmers’ movement. Boards were put up banning officials and corrupt politicians from entering villages without prior permission. They also launched a counterseizure of property of those officers who they thought were corrupt, in addition to their own properties attached for nonpayment of loans.

2. Environmental Issue: Farmers have agitated over issues related to environment. KRRS saw some commercial interest in expanding the area under eucalyptus for use by the paper and pulp industry and hence, has opposed it. KRRS demanded promotion of trees which are of relevance to farmers and other rural sections.

3. Mining Issue: KRRS has also taken up granite quarrying issue. Granite was extracted and exported with no benefit to the villagers. KRRS opposed this and made them pay royalties for village betterment in addition to clearing of government dues.

In due course, sand, timber, etc., were also included in their list. They demanded nationalization of these resources and exploitation in a rational way so as to preserve the environment and bring benefits to rural people.

4. Opposing KFC and MNCs: Very recently, KRRS has taken up the issue of patenting of seeds. It has opposed the entry of multi-nationals and patenting of seeds. It laid siege to Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) and MNC seed companies in Bangalore.

5. Neera Movement: During the 1990’s, the coconut farming belt of Karnataka was affected by pests and no amount of pesticide or conventional methods could save the trees. The pest affected coconut trees were unable to produce coconuts.

The Neera Movement demanded assistance from the government by allowing Neera tapping and producing neera by-products such as jaggery, chocolates, etc. Famers opined that the government must lend helping hand to coconut farmers just like Srilanka, Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia.

Farmers believed that the liquor lobby is obstructing the government in favouring the formers. As the agitation intensified, attuned violent, and the conflict between the agitators and the police led to golibar which claimed two lives in Vithalenahalli of Channapatna.

At a later stage, the pest epidemic was controlled and yield from coconut trees improved considerably. With this development, the heat of the neera agitation was lost.

National integration refers to national unity and a sense of belonging to the nation. It is an essential aspect in the making of a nation. Promotion of national integration is regarded as a part and parcel of the policy of any country. According to Benjamin “National integration refers to the assimilation of the entire people of a country to a common identity”.

In simple words, National Integration refers to the process wherein a feeling of togetherness, a sense of national unity and above all, a sense of national belongingness is developed among people. It is in this context, the concept of ‘National integration’ has assumed importance.

There are many challenges to National integration. They are as follows;

1. Regionalism 

2. Communalism 

3. Linguism and 

4. Extremism and Terrorism

1. Regionalism: Regionalism is expressed in the desire of people of one region to promote their own regional interest at the expense of the interests of other regions. It has often led to separatism and instigated separatist activities and violent movements. Selfish politicians exploit it. Thus, regionalism has challenged the primacy of the nationalistic interests and undermines national unity. Regionalism is mainly of four forms namely.

• Demand for separation from the Indian Union 
• Demand for a separate statehood 
• Demand for a full-fledged statehood 
• Inter-states disputes-Border disputes.

2. Communalism: Communalism is the antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of other communities and religion. Communalism is the product of a particular society, economy, and polity, which creates problems.

Communalism is an ideological tool for propagation of economic and political interests. It is an instrument in the hands of the upper class to concentrate power by dividing people. The elites strive to maintain a status quo against transformation by dividing people on communal and religious lines.

3. Linguism: Linguism implies one-sided love and admiration towards one’s language and a prejudice and hatred towards other languages. India is a land of many languages and it has been called as a ‘Museum of languages’. Diversity of languages has also led to linguism. It has often been manifested into violent movements posing threat to national integration. Linguistic tensions are prevailing in the border areas which are bilingual.

4. Extremism and Terrorism: Extremism and terrorism have emerged during the recent years as the most formidable challenges to national integration. Extremism refers to the readiness on the part of an individual or group to go to any extreme even to resort to undemocratic, violent and harmful means to fulfil one’s objectives.

In the past India has been facing the problems of terrorism since independence. India has faced this problem in Nagaland (1951), Mizoram (1966), Manipur (1976), Tripura (1980) and West Bengal in (1986). Terrorism in India is essentially the creation of politics. According to According to Prof. Rama Ahuja there are four types of terrorism India, 

• Khalistan oriented terrorism in Punjab. 
• Militants terrorism in Kashmir. 
• Naxalite terrorism in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh Telangana, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh. 
• ULFA terrorism in Assam.

The Khalistan oriented Sikh terrorism was based on a dream of theocratic state, Kashmir militants are based on their separate identity. The Naxalite terrorism is based on class enmity. Terrorism in North-Eastern India is based on the identity crisis and the grievance situation. In addition to these factors, corruption, poverty, unemployment/youth unrest, widening gap between rich and poor, which are also the major challenges for national integration.

The strategies for empowerment of women can be classified as legal, social and economic.

1. Legal strategies: After independence, several laws were drafted with the aim to treat women on par with men. 

Some of the legislation are as follows:

1. Hindu Marriage Act of 1955 

2. Hindu Succession Act of 1956. 

3. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956. 

4. Dowry Prohibition (Amendment) Act of 1984 

5. Domestic Violence Act 2005 etc.

2. Social strategies: 

Social strategies are as follows:

1. Establishment of Women Welfare Services. 

2. Legal literacy of women through mass media. 

3. Help of neighbours to be sought in the cases of abused women. 

4. Conducting public education and awareness programmes in order to help women. 

5. Males are also to be educated to realize their new roles in the changed times and the necessity of their own contribution to family life.

3. Economic strategies: 

Economic strategies are as follows:

1. Educational and vocational training tor women which will enable them to seek jobs and become economically independent 

2. Technological aids that will be labour saving devices and will lighten women’s burden of heavy daily tasks. 

3. Train women in both formal and non- formal education. 

4. Credit facilities to start small-scale industries/self employment 

5. Programmes of placing women in important positions at various levels.

Types of Micro finance

1. Informal Financial Service Providers : These include moneylenders, pawnbrokers, savings collectors, chit funds and input supply shops. Because they know each other well and live in the same community, they understand each other’s financial circumstances and can offer very flexible, convenient and fast services. These services can also be costly and the choice of financial products limited and very short-term. Informal services that involve savings are also risky; many people have lost their money in Chit funds.

2. Member-Owned Organizations: These include self-help groups, credit unions, and a variety of hybrid organizations like ‘Financial Service Associations’. They are generally small and local, which means they have access to good knowledge of each other’s financial circumstances and can offer convenience and flexibility.

Grameen Bank, Bangladesh is a member-owned organization started by Muhammad Yunus in 1970. They have proven very innovative, pioneering banking techniques like solidarity lending, village banking, and mobile banking that have overcome barriers to serving poor populations.

3. Formal Financial Institutions: In addition to commercial banks, these include State banks, Agricultural development banks, Savings banks, Rural banks, and Non bank financial institutions. They are regulated and supervised, offer a wider range of financial services, and control a branch network that can extend across the country and internationally.

However, they have proved reluctant to adopt social missions, and due to their high costs of operation, often can’t deliver services to poor or remote populations. Efforts are being made to link self-help groups to commercial banks, by integrating mobile banking and e-payment technologies into their extensive branch networks.

The term Diversity denoting collective differences so as to find out dissimilarities among the people: geographical, religious, linguistic, etc. Thus all these differences presuppose collective differences or prevalence of a variety of groups and culture. Indian society is characterized by unity as was diversity. The Nature of Diversities in India.

Primarily there are major four types of diversities in India. which are:

1. Regional Diversities 

2. Linguistic Diversities 

3. Religious Diversities 

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities

1. Regional Diversities: It is evident that there are extreme regional diversities in its geographic features. Indian territory contains huge mountains, thick forests, numerous rivers and etc. It is only in India that there are different regions, different, types of climates and the temperatures. India is a vast country. From the Himalayas in the North to the Indian Ocean in the south.

There, are differences in altitude, temperature, Flora, and Fauna, India has every conceivable type of climate, temperature, and physical configuration. There is the scorching heat of Rajasthan and the biting cold of the Himalayas, Rainfall varies from 1200 to 7.5 cms per year. The result is that India has some of the wettest and driest areas in the world. India also possesses arid desserts and fertile riverine lands, bare and hilly tracts, and luxuriant open plain.

2. Linguistic Diversities: Language is another source of diversity. It contributes to collective identities and even to conflicts. The Indian Constitution has recognized 22 languages in the 8th schedule for its official purposes but as many as 1652 languages and dialects are spoken in the country. According to Grierson’s Linguistic Survey of India, these languages belong to five linguistic families, namely; Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Austric languages, Tibeto – Burman languages and European languages.

• The Indo-Aryan languages including in the Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Panjabi, Bihari, Rajasthani, Assami, Sindhi and Kashmiri languages spoken by 3/4th of Indian population. 
• The Dravidian languages include Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam. 
• The Austric languages include Mundari, Santhali, Maithili, Dogriandetc. 
• Tibeto – Burman languages: Tribal languages and dialects of North and North-East India belong to this category. For example Manipuri, Bodo, Ladiki, Khuki, etc. 
• The European languages include English, Portuguese and French. These last two languages are spoken mostly people in Goa and Pondicherry. This makes language planning and promotion difficult. But the mother tongue does evoke strong sentiments and reactions. 
• As a consequence of this multiplicity, there is considerable bilingualism and administration has to use more than one language. Linguistic diversity has posed administrative and political challenges.

3. Religious Diversities: There are eight. major religious communities in India. Hindus constitute 82.7%, Muslims 11.8%, Christians 2.6%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%, Zoroastrians 0.3%, and Jews 0.1%. Each major religion is subdivided along the lines of religious documents, sects, and cults.

The Hindus are now broadly divided into Shaivite (worshippers of Shiva), Vaishnavaite (worshippers of Vishnu and his incarnations), Shakta (worshippers of the MotherGoddess in various manifestations. Even among them, there are subdivisions based on doctrinal and ritual differences.

Buddhism was spread widely in India once, it lost its hold in the country of its birth and remained confined only to a few pockets. Jainism too once held wide sway in India, and though its followers are now numerically small, they are found in both the northern and southern States. They have two main divisions: Digamberunclothed, and Shwetamber. The Indian Muslims are divided broadly into the Sunni and Shia communities.

Indian Christians are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants and into many denominational churches. Sikhism is synthesizing religion that emphasizes egalitarianism. Grantha Sahib is the holy book and Amritsar Golden Temple, is one of their holy piligrimage. The Parsis are a small community, but they have played an important role in India’s industrial development.

The Jewish has been established in India for over a millennium. They also had White and Black divisions and prohibition on intermarriage and inter-dining, but they all worshipped in the same synagogues. The Jati-like restrictions are. much less in Bombay and Cochin, to where many Jews have migrated.

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities: Another important source of diversity is the cultural diversity. The people differ considerably in their social habits. Cultural difference varies front state to state. The conflicting and varying shades of blood, strains, culture, and modes of life, the character, conduct, beliefs, morals, food, dress, manners, social norms, SocioReligious customs, rituals and etc.

Causes cultural and ethnic diversities in the country. Dr. R.K. Mukherji rightly said that “India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and culture, faiths and tongues, racial types and social systems”. Another important source of diversity is the cultural identity of particular communities and region.

The term Diversity denoting collective differences so as to find out dissimilarities among the people: geographical, religious, linguistic, etc. Thus all these differences presuppose collective differences or prevalence of variety of groups and culture. Indian society is characterized by unity as wefias diversity.

The Nature of Diversities in India

Primarily there are major four types of diversities in India, which are:

1. Regional Diversities 

2. Linguistic Diversities 

3. Religious Diversities 

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities

1. Regional Diversities: It is evident that there are extreme regional diversities in its geographic features. Indian territory contains huge mountains, thick forests, numerous rivers, and etc. ft is only in India that there are different regions, different types of climates and the temperatures. India is a vast country.

From the Himalayas in the North to Indian Ocean in the south. There are difference in altitude, temperature, Flora, and Fauna. India has every conceivable type of climate, temperature, and physical configuration. There is the scorching heat of Rajastan and the biting cold of the Himalayas, Rainfall varies from 1200 to 7.5 cms per year.

The result is that India has some of the wettest and driest areas in die world. India also possesses arid desserts and fertile riverine lands, bare and hilly tracts, and luxuriant open plain.

2. Linguistic Diversities: Language is another source of diversity. It contributes to collective identities and even to conflicts. The Indian Constitution has recognized 22 languages in the 8th schedule for its official purposes but as many as 1652 languages and dialects are spoken in the country.

According to Grierson’s Linguistic Survey of India, these languages belong to five linguistic families, namely; Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Austric languages, Tibeto – Burman languages and European languages.

a. The Indo-Aryan languages including in the Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, Marati, Gujarathi, Oriya, Panjabi, Bihari, Rajasthani, Assami, Sindhi and Kashmiri languages spoken by 3/4th of Indian population.

b. The Dravidian languages include Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam.

c. The Austric languages include Mundari, Santhali, Maithili, Dogri and etc.

d. Tibeto – Burman languages: Tribal languages and dialects of North and North-East India belong to this category. For example Manipuri, Bodo, Ladiki, Khuki, etc.

e. The European languages include English, Portuguese and French. These last two languages are spoken mostly people in Goa and Pondicherry.

This makes language planning and promotion difficult. But the mother tongue does evoke strong sentiments and reactions. As a consequence of this multiplicity, there is considerable bilingualism and administration has to use more than one language. Linguistic diversity has posed administrative and political challenges.

3. Religious Diversities: There are eight major religious communities in India. Hindus constitute 82.7%, Muslims 11.8%, Christians 2.6%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7%, Jains 0.4%, Zoroastrians 0.3%, and Jews 0.1%. Each major religion is subdivided along the lines of religious documents, sects, and cults.

The Hindus are now broadly divided into Shaivite (worshippers of Shiva), Vaishnavaite (worshippers of Vishnu and his incarnations), Shakta (worshippers of the Mother Goddess in various manifestations). Even among them, there are subdivisions based on doctrinal arid ritual differences.

Buddhism was spread widely in India once, it lost its hold in the country of its birth and remained confined only to a few pockets. Jainism too once held wide sway in India, and though its followers are now numerically small, they are found in both the northern and southern States. They have two main divisions: Digamber – unclothed, and Shwetamber. The Indian Muslims are divided broadly into the Sunni and Shia communities.

Indian Christians are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants and into many denominational churches. Sikhism is synthesizing religion that emphasizes egalitarianism. Grantha Sahib is the holy book and Amritsar Golden Temple is one of their holy piligrimage. The Parsis are a small community, but they have played an important role in India’s industrial development. The Jewish has been established in India for over a millennium.

They also had White and Black divisions and prohibition on intermarriage and inter-dining, but they all worshipped in the same synagogues. The Jati-like restrictions are much less in Bombay and Cochin, to where many Jews have migrated.

4. Cultural and Ethnic Diversities: Another important source of diversity is the cultural diversity. The people differ considerably in their social habits. Cultural difference varies from state to state. The conflicting and varying shades of blood, strains, culture, and modes of life, the character, conduct, beliefs, morals, food, dress, manners, social norms, Socio-Religious customs, rituals and etc.

Causes cultural and ethnic diversities in the country. Dr. R.K. Mukherji rightly said that “India is a museum of cults and customs, creeds and culture, faiths and tongues, racial types and social systems”. Another important source Of diversity is the cultural identity of particular communities and region.

According to the 2001 census, Karnataka with an area of 1,91,791 sq. km. has a population of 52,850,562 with 26,898,918 males and 25,951,644 females. According to the 2011 Census, the population of Karnataka has increased to 6,10,95,297. (Males-3,09,66,657; Females- 3,01,28,640) with a sex ratio of 973 females for every 1000 males. Karnataka retains the ninth rank as in 2001, in population among the States and accounts for 5.05 percent of the country’s population.

1. Rural – Urban population in Karnataka: Among the districts within the State, f Bengaluru District is the most populated District with 96,21,551 persons and accounts for 15.75 percent of the State’s total population while Kodagu District with a population share of 0.91 percent is the least populated District. In terms of percentage, 61.33 percent are Rural residents and 38.67 percent are Urban residents.

In terms of urbanization, the State has witnessed an increase of 4.68 percent in the proportion of Urban population in the last decade. Among the districts, Bengaluru is the most urbanized District followed by Dharwad District, Dakshina Kannada District and Mysuru District. The least urbanized District in the State is Kodagu preceded by Koppal District.

Among the districts, Bengaluru District, has witnessed the highest decennial growth rate of 47.18 percent followed by Yadgir, the newly created District, with 22.81 percent. Chikkamagaluru District, a predominantly plantation area in the Malnad region, is the only District in the State which has registered a negative growth rate of -0.26 percent. Kodagu District another plantation area in the Malnad region with a growth rate of 1.09 percent ranks 29 Just above Chikkamagaluru District.

2. Sex Ratio in Karnataka: The Sex Ratio in Karnataka has increased from 965 in 2001 to 973 in 2011. The Sex Ratio for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe population is identical at 990 and is significantly higher than that, of the State. Among the districts, the highest overall Sex Ratio of 1094 is recorded in Udupi District and the lowest of 916 is recorded in Bangalore District.

Female population is higher than male population in Chikmagalur, Kodagu (1019), Hassan, (1012) Dakshina Kannada (1020) and Udupi (1094). Inspite of favourable Sex Ratio, it has declined in Udupi (-36) and Dakshina Kannada (2).

3. Population Density in Karnataka: According to 2001 census, Bengaluru Urban District has registered the highest density of 2,985 persons per sq. km and the lowest density per sq.km, was recorded in Kodagu (134) and Uttara Kannada (132) districts. The density of population of the state was 319 in 2011 as against 276 in 2001. The density of population of Bengaluru metropolitan city was 4,378 in 2011 as against to 2985 in 2001. Uttara Kannada (140) and Kodagu (135) have the lowest density of population in the State.

4. Scheduled caste population in Karnataka: The Scheduled Caste population in the State has increased from 85,63,930 in 2001 to 1,04,74,992, in 2011, registering a decennial growth rate of22.32 percent. The Scheduled Caste population constitutes 17.15 percent of the total population of the State. The highest proportion of Scheduled Caste population is returned from Kolar District with 30.32 percent, followed by Chamarajanagar District with 25.42 percent. The least proportion of Scheduled Caste population is recorded in the coastal district of Udupi (6.43 percent) District.

5. Scheduled Tribe population in Karnataka: The Scheduled Tribe population in the state has increased from 34,63,986 in 2001 Census to 42,48,987 in 2011, registering a decennial growth rate of 22.66 percent. The proportion of the Scheduled Tribe population to total population of the State is 6.95 percent. The highest proportion of Scheduled Tribe population is in Raichur District (19.03 percent) and the least proportion is returned from Mandya District (1.24 percent)

6. Literacy rate in Karnataka: Literacy rate of the State has increased from 66.64 percent in 2001 to 75.36 percent 2011. While the male literacy has increased from 76.10 percent to 82.47 percent, the female literacy rate has increased from 56.87 percent to 68.08 percent.

Among the districts, Dakshina Kannada t District with overall Literacy rate of 88.57 percent retains its top position, closely followed by Bengaluru District (87.67 percent) and Udupi District (86.24 percent). The lowest overall Literacy rate of 51.83 percent is recorded in the newly created Yadgir District, preceded by Raichur District which has recorded 59.56 percent.

The 'Ruhr or India' is Damodar Valley region.

The Manchester or South India is Bengaluru.

हामिद के मुल्क में हिंदू और मुस्लिम के बीच जरा भी सौहार्द्र नहीं था। लेकिन लेखक के मुल्क में हिंदू और मुस्लिम बड़े प्रेम से रहते थे। यह बात हामिद के लिए आश्चर्यजनक थी। इसलिए हामिद ने ऐसा कहा।

The rainbow revolution is meant for overall development of Indian agriculture. Under rainbow revolution, the following revolutions are included.

Major issues of Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha Movement:

1. Loan Recovery Issue and Banning Corrupt Officials and Politicians in Villages: This has led to farmers’ movement headed by KRRS over loan recovery issue. KRRS took up this issue and led the farmers’ movement. Boards were put up banning officials and corrupt politicians from entering villages without prior permission.

They also launched a counter-seizure of property of those officers who they thought were corrupt, in addition to their own properties that were attached for non-payment of loans.

2. Environmental Issue: Farmers have agitated over issues related to the environment. KRRS saw some commercial interest in expanding the area under eucalyptus for use by the paper and pulp industry and hence, has opposed it. This tree affects the fertility of the soil in the long run and depletes the under ground water level.

3. Mining Issue: KRRS has also taken up the granite quarrying issue. Granite was extracted and exported with no benefit to the villagers. KRRS opposed this and made them pay royalties for village betterment in addition to clearing of government dues. In due course, sand, timber, etc. were also included in their list.

4. Opposing KFC and MNCs: Recently, KRRS has taken up the issue of patenting of seeds. It has opposed the entry of multi-nationals and patenting of seeds. After the 1985 assembly poll, KRRS has become less militant. This may be because of the reason that the Janata Government in the state successfully created an impression that it was profarmer and the problems were due to non-cooperation of the centre.

5. Neera Movement: During the 1990’s, the coconut farming belt of Karnataka was affected by pests and no amount of pesticide or conventional methods could save die trees and the pest affected coconut trees were unable to produce coconuts. The Neera Movement demanded assistance from the Government by allowing Neera tapping and producing neera by-products such as jaggery, Chocolates, etc.

Farmers opined that the Government must lend a helping hand to coconut farmers. As the agitation intensified, it turned violent, and the conflict between the agitators and the police led to golibar which claimed two lives. At a later stage, die pest epidemic was controlled and yield from coconut trees improved considerably.

National integration refers to national unity and a sense of belonging to the nation. It is an essential aspect in the making of a nation. Promotion of national integration is regarded as a part and parcel of the policy of any country. According to Benjamin “National integration refers to the assimilation of the entire people of a country to a common identity”.

In simple words, National Integration refers to the process wherein a feeling of togetherness, a sense of national unity and above all, a sense of national belongingness is developed among people. It is in this context, the concept of ‘National integration’ has assumed importance.

There are many challenges to National integration. They are as follows;

1. Regionalism 

2. Communalism 

3. Linguist and 

4. Extremism and Terrorism

1. Regionalism: Regionalism is expressed in the desire of people of one region to promote their own regional interest at the expense of the interests of other regions. It has often led to separatism and instigated separatist activities and violent movements. Selfish politicians exploit it. Thus, regionalism has challenged the primacy of the nationalistic interests and undermines national unity. 

Regionalism is mainly of four forms namely.

1. Demand for separation from the Indian Union 

2. Demand for a separate statehood 

3. Demand for a full-fledged statehood 

4. Inter-states disputes-Border disputes.

2. Communalism: Communalism is the antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of other communities and religions. Communalism is the product of a particular society, economy and polity, which creates problems. Communalism is an ideological tool for propagation of economic and political interests. It is an instrument in the hands of the upper class to concentrate power by dividing people. The elites strive to maintain a status quo against transformation by dividing people on communal and religious lines.

3. Linguism: Linguism implies one-sided love and admiration towards one’s language and prejudice and hatred towards other languages. India is a land of many languages and it has been called as a ‘Museum of languages’. Diversity of languages has also led to linguism. It has often been manifested into violent movements posing threat to national integration. Linguistic tensions are prevailing in the border areas which are bilingual.

4. Extremism and Terrorism: Extremism and terrorism have emerged during recent years as the most formidable challenges to national integration. Extremism refers to the readiness on the part of an individual or group to go to any extreme even to resort to undemocratic, violent and harmful means to fulfil one’s objectives. In the past India has been facing the problems of terrorism since independence. India has faced this problem in Nagaland (1951), Mizoram (1966), Manipur (1976), Tripura (1980) and West Bengal (1986).

Terrorism in India is essentially the creation of politics. According to Prof. Rama Ahuja, there are four types of terrorism India, 

(1) Khalistan oriented terrorism in Punjab (2) Militants terrorism in Kashmir.(3) Naxalite terrorism in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh Telangana, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh. (4) ULFA terrorism in Assam.

The Khalistan oriented Sikh terrorism was based on a dream of theocratic state, Kashmir militants are based on their separate identity. The Naxalite terrorism is based on class enmity. Terrorism in North Eastern India is based on the identity crisis and the grievance situation. In addition to these factors, corruption, poverty, unemployment/ youth unrest, widening gap between rich and poor, which are also the major challenges for national integration.

Shri Mahila Griha Udyog: Lijjat Papad, popularly known as Lijjat, is an Indian women’s cooperative involved in the manufacturing of various fast moving consumer goods. The organisation’s main objective is empowerment of women by providing them employment opportunities. Started in the year 1959, with a seed capital of Rs. 80, Lijjat has an annual turnover of around Rs. 6.50 billion in 2010, with Rs. 290 million in exports. It provides employment to around 42,000 women. Lijjat is headquartered in Mumbai and has 67 branches all over India. Lijjat is primarily a cottage industry, urban by its origin, that has spread to the rural areas. It is considered as one of the most remarkable entrepreneurial initiatives by women that are identified with female empowerment in India.

Self-Employed Women Association – SEWA: Self-Employed Women Association has made significant contribution to the empowerment of women. It has strived to integrate self-employed poor women with the mainstream economy through the twin strategies of struggle and development. Women are the worst victims of poverty. Poor women generally experience a variety of socio economic and cultural depreciation in society. The root causes of their plight are unemployment, lack of income and economic dependency.

The self-employed women of Ahmadabad organized and formed the Self-Employed Women Association — (SEWA) in 1972. The motivation and guidance was furnished by the leadership Ela Bhatt. SEWA has strived to create conditions of full employment and self-reliance for all its members.

The central concern of SEWA has been to secure the existence of its members by furnishing financial support in the form of micro credit to self- employed women. In order to provide finance facility at the earliest, the Shri Mahila SEWA Sahakari Bank Ltd. was registered in 1974. In the beginning, SEWA Bank started functioning in urban areas; later on it extended its operations to rural areas. SEWA began its activities in rural areas in 1975.

Prof. M.D.Nanjunda Swamyand Puttannaiah are the two leaders of Karnataka Raita Sangha.

(b) extensive farming

Agricultural diversification is a system of fanning that encourages production of a variety of plant and animals and their products. Non-farm employment provides greater income stability, economies of size also reduces uncertainty of business. It involves maximum number of persons as it is labour intensive in nature.

The majority of small and marginal farmers cultivate mainly low-value subsistence crops. In the absence of farm and non-farm employment opportunities, they are forced to live below poverty line. So this problem is solved with the help of commercialisation and diversification of small farmers within and outside agriculture and their proper integration with local and global markets.

This is helpful not only in liberating the small and marginal farmers from the poverty trap, but also to meet the country’s growing demands for fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products, meat, fishes, eggs, etc. which generally show rising trends with increasing levels of per capita income in the economy.

The Coromandel Coast of India receives good rains from cyclonic storms in the months of November and December.

Agricultural marketing encompasses all activities in moving farm products from the producers to the final consumers such as storage, transport, processing, etc. In India, agricultural marketing was regarded as operationally inefficient and exploitative in character. 

Hence to improve the position of agricultural marketing following things are required :

1.  Facilities for storing goods. 

2. Adequate and economical transport. 

3. Eliminination of intermediaries.

 4. Basic information of market conditions to get better prices for the produce.

The above mentioned requirements for efficient agricultural marketing can be also classified into the following. 

1. Promotion of cooperative agricultural marketing societies. 

2. Developing regulated markets where marketing practices have been standardized so as to provide encouragement to farmers to come to mandis to dispose o their produce and prevent them from exploitation in the hand of Dallas. 

3. Granding and standardisation of produce to help the farmer to fetch better prices.

4. Developing warehousing facilities, road transport, etc. 

5. Declaration of support price that offers a minimum price to the farmers for their produce.

Constitutional provisions relating to the above said groups are as follows:

a. Article 15: The state shall hot discriminate against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any such thing. The removal of any disability, restriction or condition with regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and place of public entertainment or the use of wells, tanks, roads, and place of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of state funds or dedicated to the use of general public.

b. Article 16: There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matter relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state.

c. Article 17: Untouchability is abolished and its practice in any form is forbidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of untouchability shall be an offense punishable in accordance with law.

d. Article 23: Ilegalizes traffic in human beings and forced labor.

e. Article 25 B: Hindu religious institutions of public characters are open to all classes and sections of Hindus.

f. Article 29: Any cultural and linguistic minority has the right to conserve its language or culture. The article provides protection to scheduled tribe communities to preserve their languages, dialects and cultures. The state would not by law enforce upon them any other culture or language.

g. Article 46: The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections of the people and in particular of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.

h. Article 164: This provides for a separate ministry in charge of Welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and backward classes.

i. Article 325 of part XV: It guarantees to all citizens of India the right to vote.

j. Article 330, 332 and 334: This provides that seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the house of people and state legislatures.

k. Article 335: It mentions the claim of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.

l. Article 338: This empowers the Central government to appoint a Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

m. Article 339: This empowers the President to appoint a Commission to report on the administration of the scheduled areas and the welfare of scheduled tribes in the states.

n. Article 341: This empowers the President to specify the castes, races or tribes deemed as Scheduled’ Castes in a particular state or Union territory.

o. Article 342: This empowers the President to specify the tribes deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in a particular state or Union territory.

Rudrappa, Sundaresh, and Nanjundaswamy presented the farmers’ demands to the Chief Minister Gundu Rao on October 17, 1980. 

They were as follows:

1. Release unconditionally all farmers arrested in various movements and withdraw cases against them. 

2. Waive loans owed by farmers so far to the government. Give fresh loans at simple interest, without mediation of banks and co-operatives. 

3. The scale of loans should keep pace with the rising expenses of cultivation. 

4. Return all property attached and auctioned for non-payment of loans.

5. Abolish land revenue and betterment levy; reduce water rates; abolish water rate for tank water and seepage water, and for lands which are not supplied with water; abolish agricultural income tax. 

6. Remove taxes and other restrictions on the use of tractors, trailors of farmers. 

7. Abolish purchase tax on sugarcane with effect from 1979-80. 

8. Reduce electricity charges to 6V2 paise per unit. 

9. Fix agricultural prices scientifically, based on man-hours spent, means it is the government should buy the agricultural produce at the supportive price. 

10. The principle for price fixation is that price should be real in the sense that they should have parity with the prices of inputs and man hours spent. 

11. Declare agriculture as an industry, and extend all facilities enjoyed by industrial labor to agriculturists also. 

12. Provide crop insurance throughout the state, without demanding premium from farmers. 

13. Every farmer and farm laborer should get old age pension.

14. Agricultural laborers should be given wages and other facilities as in the case of industrial workers. Not only right prices to farmers but also right wages to laborers should be fixed from time to time. 

15. To reduce pressure on land, give governmental land to landless laborers and help them in cultivating it under government supervision. 

16. Give lands to tenants without occupancy price and give lump sum compensation to landowners. ‘ 

17. Allocate 80% of plan expenditure on village development. 

18. Provide travel worthy roads in countryside. 

19. Reserve 50% of seats in educational institutions and employment for farmers’ children.

1. The North and the North-Eastern Zone: This zone comprises the Sub-Himalayan Region and the Mountain Ranges of the North-Eastern Frontier of India, the Tista valley and the Jamuna-Padma portion of the Brahmaputra. It includes Himachal Pradesh, Northern UP, Sikkim and the seven states of the Northeast consisting of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur, and Tripura.

They belong to the Mongoloid race and their language resembles the languages of Austric family. This zone is inhabited by the Tribes such as Gurung, Limbu, Lepcha, Aka, Mishmi, Mikir, Rabha, Kachari, Garo, Khasi, Chakmas, Naga, Angami, Serna, Pham, Chang and so on.

2. The Central Zone: The Central zone comprises the plateau and mountains between the Indo-Gangetic plains in the North and the Krishna River in the South. It includes WestBengal, Orissa, Bihar, Southern UP, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. The important Tribes among these are the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, Bhi Is of Rajasthan, Santhalas of Chotanagpur, Ho of Singhbhum, Manbhumi, Khond and Kharia of Orissa, Sawara of Ganjam and the Mundas.

Madhya Pradesh has the largest concentration of tribal population (23.27%). Santhalas of this zone are more advanced. Some of the tribes are engaged in small-scale cottage industries and settled forms of cultivation. Some of them live in very dense forests and difficult terrains.

3. The Southern Zone: These are the Tribes of South India (Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and two Union territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep). The Tribes of this zone are the original inhabitants of India and these people speak Dravidian languages. This zone consists of the Tribes like Chenchu, Kota, Kurumba, Badaga, Toda, Kadar, Malaya, Muthuran, Koya, Soliga, Kannikar, Paniya, Yeravas, Irula, Kadu Kuruba, Jenu Kuruba, Akki Pikki, etc.

In the Andaman and Nicobar islands, there are six Tribes namely the great Andamanees, the Onges, the Sentinelese, the Jarawas represent the Negritos race and the Nicobares and Shompens belong to the Mongoloids race. The Nicobares numbering about 22000 are comparatively an advanced Tribe and are settled in the Nicobar Islands. The remaining five Tribes are numerically very small and have been declared as the primitive Tribes.

Following are the alternative channels available for agricultural marketing. 

1. Co-operative Credit Societies 

2. Reserve Bank of India 

3. Regional Rural Banks 

4. Commercial Banks 

5. NABARD 

6. Self Help Groups (SHGs)

The farmers suffer from many problems relating to agricultural marketing. Some obstacles that hinder the mechanism of agricultural marketing are mentioned below. 

• faulty weighing 
• manipulation of accounts 
• forced to sell at lower prices 
• lack of proper storage facilities 
• lack of infrastructure facilities inadequate coverage of farmers by cooperatives 
• inefficient financial management

(d)   Millets.

R.S. Deshpande and Saroj Arora methodically analysed the causes of farmers’ suicides and listed them as:

1. Events 

2. Stressors 

3. Actors and 

4. Triggers

1. Events: Among the ‘events’, crop loss, failure of a bore well, price crash, daughter’s marriage, family problems and property disputes are included.

2. Stressors: These become ‘stressors’ (stress creators) when two or more such ‘events’ cluster together: Specifically, illness of the individual or any of the family members, heavy borrowings, continued disputes in the family or land-related problems usually act as ‘stressors’. These become lethal in combination with the ‘events’ but further ignition comes through the ‘actors/catalysts’ and ‘trigger’ incidences.

3. Actors: Actors/catalysts create a sense of ‘insecurity’ or ‘insult’ to the potential victim. These include the moneylenders, bankers, spouses, relatives and close friends.

4. Triggers: On the background of the ‘events’ and ‘stressors’, the ‘actors/catalysts’ fire the final act by forcing an occasion to be the ‘Trigger’ for the unfortunate incident. Given this complex nature of the phenomena, it certainly becomes difficult to pinpoint one particular reason for suicide. Emile Durkheim’s monograph on Suicide indicates growing alienation of individual from the family, society and religion as a factor responsible for suicide.

According to Durkheim suicides indicate social disintegration. Among the reasons cited in various studies associated with suicides, indebtedness is one of the reasons but it is not the only risk factor. Multiple risk factors feed into each other and reinforce each other. In addition to the weather related uncertainties, the farmer is also faced with market (increasing costs and output price shocks), technology, spurious inputs, and credit-related vulnerabilities.

In the absence of risk mitigation strategies, the farmer is at the receiving end. Under stress, some farmers end up committing suicide. Studies indicate that suicides are occurring in the high and medium growth states and are conspicuously absent in the backward states like BIMARU (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh). Scholars have articulated ‘High Aspirations’ or the thrust for upward mobility in the absence of public policy support, major causation for suicides in the backward areas of medium growth states.

Operation of rural banking had a positive effect on rural farm and non-farm output, income, and employment. Farmers were given a variety of loans for meeting production needs. This helped India to achieve food security and to gain a huge buffer stock of grains. 

However our banking system in the rural area could not meet all loan needs of the farmers. Some of the farmers still depend on local moneylenders. This system failed to develop a culture of deposit mobilization. Agriculture loan default was very high.

R. S. Deshpumde and Saroja Arora’s work ‘Agrarian Crisis and Farmer Suicides’ is a field work based study. It was Conducted by the Center for Rural Studies, Lai Bahadur Shastri National Academy and Administration, Mussoori in 2007. This volume deals with the problems of farmers’ suicides across the state. Agrarian crisis in Karnataka can be understood in the following way.

It is acknowledged fact that between 1993 and 2003,100,248 farmers committed suicide in India. Suicide is not confined to Karnataka alone. It has been reported among the sugarcane growers of UP, cotton growers of Andhra Pradesh and spice/ coffee growers of Kerala. It has been reported from Orissa and West Bengal as well.

Karnataka has no history of farmers committing suicide even during the situation of acute agrarian crisis. Even the unorganised farmers would resort to other tactics such as throwing agricultural commodities on the roads, burning their crops and so on. However, suicide was an attempt to retain the identity as a distinct social category within the larger economy.

In this context, the report of the Agricultural Department, Government of Karnataka is important. Between 2003 and 2012, a total of 2909 farmers committed suicide. On the contrary, the Central Government claimed that from 2000-01 to 2005-06, around 8600 farmers committed suicide which is the highest figure when compared to any other state in fact Maharashtra is relegated to third position in the suicide rate.

However, if we calculate the statistics provided by the Veeresh Committee report, including other press reports one can estimate the number of suicides is more than 5000. Region-wise the highest suicide rate was reported from the Old Mysore areas, followed by the Old Bombay Presidency areas and the Old Hyderabad region.

The Old Madras Presidency area, as well as Coorg also reported suicides, however their number is less. In fact, Old Mysore and Old Bombay Presidency areas are better known for irrigation. Most of these who committed suicide lived near the tail end of the canal. The beginning of the suicides can be traced back to the year 1998, when farmers in Bihar, who were involved in cultivating toor dal, a market oriented agricultural crop committed suicide.

In the two years, farmer suicides were largely concentrated in the drought-prone districts of north Karnataka or confined to economically backward, drought-prone regions such as Gulbarga and Bidar. However, after 2000, the phenomenon shifted to relatively advanced agricultural regions, particularly Mandya, Hassan, Shimoga, Davanagere, Koppal and even Chikamagalur and Kodagu.

A large section of people suffer from food and nutrition insecurity in India. However, the worst affected groups areas follows:
→ Landless and land-poor households, traditional artisans, providers of traditional services, petty self-employed workers and destitute including beggars (in the rural areas).
→ People employed in ill-paid occupations and casual labourers engaged in seasonal activities (in the urban areas).
→ People belonging to the backward sections of society, namely SCs, STs and OBCs
→ People belonging to economically-backward states with high incidence of poverty, tribal and remote areas and regions more prone to natural disasters.
→ People affected by natural disasters who have to migrate to other areas in search of work.
→ Large proportion of pregnant and nursing mothers, and children under the age of 5 years.

1. c) The market was big enough to encourage private industrialists for investment. 

2. protecting domestic industries from international competition. (or any other valid answer) 

3. True 

4. a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true.

(d) provide balanced diet to masses

(b) primary sector

The various details about the population of British India were first collected through a census in 1881. It revealed the unevenness in India’s population growth. Subsequently, every ten years census was conducted. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition. The second stage of transition began after 1921.

During British rule, the overall literacy level was less than 16%. Out of this, the female literacy level was at a negligible low of about 7%. Public health facilities were either unavailable to large chunks of population or when available, were highly inadequate. Consequently, water and air-borne diseases were common and took a huge number of deaths.

The mortality rate was very high and in that particularly, the infant mortality rate was quite alarming i.e., it was 218 per thousand. The life expectancy was also very low i.e., 44 years in contrast to the present 68 years. There was also extensive poverty prevailed in India during the colonial period which contributed to the worsening demographic profile of India during British period.

India's demographic conditions during the British rule depict our economy as stagnant and backward. Due to high birth rate and high death rate the population growth was stagnant before 1921 the Infant Mortality Rate was also very high of about 218 per thousand which today stands at 47.57 per thousand.

The various details about the population of British India were first collected through a census in 1881. It revealed the unevenness in India’s population growth. Subsequently, every ten years census was conducted. Before 1921, India was in the first stage of demographic transition. The second stage of transition began after 1921.

During British rule, the overall literacy level was less than 16%. Out of this, the female literacy level was at a negligible low of about 7%. Public health facilities were either unavailable to large chunks of population or when available, were highly inadequate. Consequently, water and air-borne diseases were common and took a huge number of deaths.

The mortality rate was very high and in that particularly, the infant mortality rate was quite alarming i.e., it was 218 per thousand. The life expectancy was also very low i.e., 44 years in contrast to the present 68 years. There was also extensive poverty prevailed in India during the colonial period which contributed to the worsening demographic profile of India during British period.

Psychological motivations can be guided by need for achievement and affiliation.