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(a) Aunt Jane visited Jack and Jill. 

(b) She was pleasantly surprised to see then leading a comfortable life. 

(c) She found all modem amenities like sofa, cosy bed, car, radiogram, piano and a lovely home. 

(d) She did not understand how Jack was able to pay sent for much a lovely home. 

(e) She wondered how it was possible with a limited income as low as six pounds a month.

Selling Cost: 

1. Selling Cost is the discussion of “ Product differentiation”, we can infer that the producer under monopolistic competition has to incur expenses to popularize his brand. This expenditure involved in selling the product is called selling cost. According to Prof. Chamberlin, Selling cost is “The cost incurred in order to alter the position or shape of the demand curve for a product”.

2. Most important form of selling cost is advertisement. Sales promotion by a advertisement is called non – price competition.

3. Product differentiation through effective advertisement is another method. This is known as sales promotion. Be frequently advertising the brand of the product through Press, Film, Radio, and TV. The consumers are made to feel that the brand produced by the firm in question is superior to that of other brands sold by other firms.

4. Product differentiation may also be effected by offering customers some benefits with the sale of the product. Facilities like free servicing, home delivery, acceptance of returned goods, etc.

Example: Most important form of selling cost is advertisement [This is known as sales promotion]. By frequently advertising the brand of the product through press, film, radio, T.V.

There is a barrier for entry of new firm in Monopoly.

Supply curve in the very short period is Vertical.

(a) MC curve should cut MR curve from below

Under monopolistic competition, as the products are differentiated, the producer has to incur expenses to make his brand popular. The expenditure involved in selling the product is called “selling cost’ 

Eg. Cost for advertisements.

(c) Advertisement cost

Twelfth Five Year Plan [2012 – 2017] 

1. Its main theme is “Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable Growth”. 

2. Its growth rate target is 8%. 

3. The Indian Independence the Five Year Plans of India played a very prominent role in the economic development of the country.

4. These plans had guided the Government as to how it should utilise scarce resources so that maximum benefits can be gained. 

5. It is worthy to mention here that Indian Government adopted the concept of five year plans from the Russia.

1. After Independence, the Government of India adopted planned economic development. 

2. Five year plans came into existence since 1951. 3. The main objective of the economic planning aimed at social welfare. 

4. Before Independence commercial banks were in the private sector. 

5. These commercial banks failed in helping the Government to achieve social objectives of planning. 

6. Therefore, the government decided to nationalize 14 major commercial banks on 19 July 1969.

7. In 1980, again the government took over another 6 commercial banks.

1. The Indian handicrafts products had a worldwide market. 

2. Indian exports consisted chiefly of hand weaved cotton and silk fabrics, calicoes, artistic wares, wood carving etc. 

3. Through discriminatory tariff policy, the British Government purposefully destroyed the handicrafts. 

4. With the disappearance of nawabs and kings, there was no one to protect Indian handicrafts. 

5. Indian handicraft products could not compete with machine-made products.

6. The introduction of railways in India increased the domestic market for the British goods.

1. Economic development of a country particularly depends on the process of Industrialisation. 

2. At the time of Independence, India inherited a weak and shallow Industrial base. 

3. Therefore during the post-Independence period, the Government of India took special emphasis on the development of a solid Industrial base.

Land Tenure refers to the system of land ownership and management. The features that distinguish a land tenure system from the others relate to the following:

• Who owns the land
• Who cultivates the land.
• Who is responsible for paying the land revenue to the government.

Based on these questions, three different types of land tenure existed in India before Independence. They were:

• Zamindari System or the Landlord-Tenant System.
• Mahalwari System or Communal System of Farming.
• Ryotwari System or the Owner-Cultivator System.

Zamindari System or the Land lord Tenant System:

• This system was created by the British East India Company, when in 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced ‘Permanent Settlement Act’.
• Under this system the landlord or the Zamindars were declared as the owners of the land and they were responsible to pay the land revenue to the government.
• The share of the government in total rent collected was fixed as 10/11th, the balance going to the Zamindars as remuneration.

Mahalwari System or Communal System of Farming:

• After introduction of this system, it was later extended to Madhya Pradesh and Punjab.
• The ownership of the land was maintained by the collective body usually the villagers which served as a unit of management.
• They distributed land among the peasants and collected revenue from them and pay it to the state.

Ryotwari System (or) the Owner-Cultivator System:

• This system was initially introduced in Tamil Nadu and later extended to Maharashtra, Gujarat, Assam, Coorg, East Punjab and Madhya Pradesh.
• Under this system the ownership rights of use and control of land were held by the tiller himself.
• There was the direct relationship between owners and tillers. This system was the least oppressive system before Independence.

1. India’s sea route trade to Europe started only after the arrival of Vasco da Gama in Calicut, India on May 20, 1498. 

2. The Portuguese had traded in Goa as early as 1510. 

3. In 1601 the East India Company was chartered, and the English began their first inroads into the Indian ocean. 

4. In 1614 Sir Thomas Roe was successful in getting permission from Jahangir for setting up factories and slowly moved all parts of India. 

5. Hundred years after Battle of Plassey, the rule of the East India Company finally did come to an end. 

6. In 1858, British Parliament passed a law through which the power for governance of India was transferred from the East India Company [EIC] to the British Crown. 

7. Even the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown did not materially alter the situation. 

8. Britain had exploited India over a period of two centuries of its colonial rule. 

9. On the basis of the form of colonial exploitation, economic historians have divided the whole period into three phases: 

10. The period of merchant Capital 

11. The period of Industrial Capital 

12. The period of Finance Capital

1. “PQLI” – means Physical Quality of Life Index [PQLI]. Morris D Morris developed the Physical Quality of life Index ( PQLI). 

2. The PQLI is a measure to calculate the quality of life (well being of a country) 

Three indicators are:

• Life expectancy 
• Infant mortality rate
• Literacy rate

3. A scale of each indicator ranges from the number 1 to 100. 

4. Number 1 represents the worst performance by any country. 

5. 100 is the best performance.

1. Micro Manufacturing Enterprises: The investment in plant and machinery does not exceed Rs 25 lakhs. 

2. Small Manufacturing Enterprises: The investment in plant and machinery is more than twenty five lakh mpees but does not exceed Rs 5 crores.

3. Medium Manufacturing Enterprises: The investment in plant and machinery is more than Rs 5 crores but not exceeding Rs 10 crores.

(a) The president

We have two houses in our parliament: 

1. Lok Sabha 

2. Rajya Sabha 

(i) Lok Sabha : It is the first or lower house of the Indian Parliament. Its members are directly elected by the people. At present, total strength of Lok Sabha is 545. Out of these, 543 are elected and 2 are nominated. The time duration of this house is 5 years. On the advice of the Prime Minister, this can be dissolved before the time. 

(ii) Rajya Sabha : It is the second or upper house of Indian Parliament. At present, the strength of its members is 245 out of these, 12 are nominated by the President. It is a permanent house and can never be dissolved. The duration of its members is 6 years. Its one-third members get retired after every two years.

1. District Election Officer : District Election Officer works under the operation, direction and control of chief election officer of the state. In general, Election commission appoints the District Collector as District Election officer. 

2. Zonal Magistrate : One Zonal Mgistrate is appointed for a zone which includes 10 voting centres. Since the time of the declaration of election to the completion of election process, all zone-related managements fall under the responsibility of the Zonel Magistrate. He also resolves complaints relating to conveniences at voting centres, any apprehensive factors to disturb election process, mock poll, EVM or vote boxes and also their transportation at polling centres. .

1 – c 

2 – d 

3 – b 

4 – a 

5 -f

1. King Demetrius

2.Panini

1. Shreshthi

2. Lohavanija

(a) Banbhatta

(b) More than 100 villages

The duration of lok sabha is  5  years.

For 543 Lok Sabha (Lower House) seats.

The main features of Presidential system of government are as follows :

• In this system of government, the people directly elect the President 
• The President is the head of both-states and government-in this system 
• President operates his administration with the help of the cabinet 
• In this, system the principle of separation of power is adopted.

It is based on the pricniple of Division/Separation of Powers.

The Election Commission of India.

The third polling officer is in-charge of E.VM. control unit.

Duties of Area Magistrate : In elections, the District Magistrate appoints area magistrate. He is responsible to maintain law and order in his designated area from the date of his appointment to the next day to the completion of the voting process. He visits the sites frequently on the day of voting. Besides maintaining law and order at the polling centres/stations, he also ensures availability of basic amenities, resolution to any doubts in respect of election process, being raised by voting parties, provisioning of additional mandatory voting staff. He also works as a friend and patron to the voting groups or parties.

Election Commission of India : The Election commission of India is three-member corporation wherein there is one chief election commission and there are two election commissioners. Their appointments are made by the President of our country. This commission is responsible for conducting election of the President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha elections and also states legislative elections (Legislative Assembly).

Chief election officer of Rajasthan.

State Election Commission.

President of the country.

In the parliamentary general election, the two main functions of third polling officer are as follows : 

• He grants permission to electorate to vote in the polling enclosure in accordance with the voiting slip issued by the second polling officer. 
• This officer also ensures that the indelible ink mark is safe on the finger of an electorate.

Presiding officer is appointed by the District Election officer. He arranges to accomplish voting works at different voting centres with the help of election (voting) officers.

Second Polling Officer.

Moral Code of Conduct: At the time of elections, Election Commission issues some rules and directives. All political parties and candidates are expected to follow these directive. This set of rules and directions is called ‘moral code of conduct. 

The following facts are included under this :

• Don’t inflict any hurt to the spirit of religion, community and caste 
• No personal criticism 
• No election campaign or related activities within the cirumferane of 150 meters from the polling centre 
• No procession or congregation without permission of the administration 
• Ruling party should not misuse any government machinery for the sake of it in elections 
• Not to seek any prop at religious places during election compaign.

(a) central machinery

(b) the constant struggle between Sakas and Satavahanas

1. Suvarnakar

2. Vaidya

The region in the north shown in dark green is the North Indian Plain. It slopes towards the east.

1. Devbhuti

2. Naneghat

Deltas are found on the eastern coast of India.

(i) The western coast borders the Arabian Sea and the eastern coast borders the Bay of Bengal. 

(ii) The western coast is by and large a rocky coast. At places, spurs starting from the Western Ghats have extended right up to the coast. The eastern coast has been formed as a result of depositional work of rivers. 

(iii) The width of the western coast is narrow, whereas that of the eastern coast is wide. 

(iv) Short and swift rivers originating from Western Ghats form estuaries on the western coast, whereas, because of the gentle slope the east flowing rivers flowing at low speed deposit sediments and form deltas on the eastern coast.

(v) Thus there are dissimilarities between the eastern and the western coasts of India.

The rain shadow region of Trade Winds lying in the northern part of Brazil is called ’Drought Quadrilateral’.

Radha Gobind Sangeet sar.

(i) The eastern coast borders the Bay of Bengal. It has been formed as a result of depositional work of rivers.

(ii) Many east flowing rivers rising from the Western and Eastern Ghats after travelling a long distance join the Bay of Bengal at this coast.

(iii) Because of the gentle slope of the land, rivers flow at lower velocities and deposit the sediments brought with them at the coast.

Therefore, this coast is comparatively wider than the west.

(iv) As a result, deltas are found along the eastern coast of India.

(i) The eastern side of the Highlands is demarcated because of the Escarpment having an altitude of 790 m.

(ii) The Escarpment acts as a barrier to the Southeast trade winds and cause orographic type of rainfall in the coastal region.

(iii) Beyond the highlands the effect of these winds gets reduced leading to minimal rainfall.

(iv) A rain shadow region is formed to the north east of the Escarpment. Thus, the region to the north of this area is called “Drought Quadrilateral”.

(i) Deltas are formed in the coastal areas where there is gentle slope, because the rivers slow down forming distributaries and channels.

(ii) The western coast bordering the Western Ghats are by and large rocky coasts having a narrow width.

(iii) Many short and swift seasonal rivers originate from the steep western slopes of the Western Ghats.

(iv) As the rivers flow through steep slopes, their velocity increases. So there is very little deposition made by them.

(v) Hence, there are no deltas on the western coast of India.