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The construction of Sudarshan lake was done by the governor of Saurashtra province of the Mauryan empire.

Vijyanagar is considered to be the first Hindu empire of the medieval age. It was founded by two brothers Harihar and Bukka in 1336 CE. Persian traveller Abur Razzak wrote about Vijaynagar empire that Vijaynagar was one of the world’s most grand cities which he had seen or heard about. 

Its cultural progress and development of literature can be understood as follows:

Cultural Progress – In the medival history of South India, the contribution of Vijaynagar empire in the cultural progress of the region is remarkable. On account of being under the rule of Hindu kings, this kingdom was a centre of Hindu religion and culture. The rulers gave special encouragement to Hindu religion and culture.

The credit for resurrection of Hindu religion in medieval times is given to the Vijaynagar rulers. These rulers encouraged literature, architecture, music and painting etc. They made Vijayanagar empire an excellent centre of cultural activities.

Development of Literature – Under the guidance of Sayana, a council of scholars wrote Bhashyas (commentaries) on all the four Vedas, many Brahminical tomes and Aranyakas. Under the patronage of Krishnadeva Rai, Ishwar Dixit wrote two commentaries on the epic ‘Hemkoot’. Agastya composed many poems and poetic works.

The greatest ruler of Vijayanagar, Krishnadeva Rai was a poet of superior calibre and a fine writer. He had scholarly knowledge of Sanskrit and Telugu languages. His Telugu creation was ‘Aamuka Malaydam’, which is one of the greatet epics of Telugu language. Krishnadeva Rai wrote a Sanskrit play ‘Jambavati Kalyanam.’

Alasani Peddan, Timman, Bhatiamurti, Haridas, Tenali Rama were among the important poets of this period. Among literary works, Rajnath’s ‘Saaluvabhiyuday’ and ‘Bhagwat – Champu’ are especially notable. Although the Vijaynagar rulers gave priority to Sanskrit and Telugu languages yet they gave patronage to poets of other languages too.

The Cholas were great lovers of art and prolific builders. They built grand palaces, artificial lakes, large dams, beautiful cities, sculptures of metal and stone and grand temples. Architecture The main contribution of Chola architecture is temple construction. These temples were built in the Dravidian style. The great Chola rulers took Dravidian architecture to its pear during their reign.

The main features of the temples built by them were-huge and square vimana, a large courtyard in the centre, ornamental Gopuram, Mandapa, lion, traditional brackets for inner decoration and use of joint pillars etc. The Rajarajeshwar or Brihadeshwar temple built by Rajaraja I at Tanjore is considered to be the epitome of Chola architectural excellence.

Sculpture – Alongwith architecture, the Chola craftsmen were skilled in the art of metal-casting. The fine examples of metal – craft and sculpting in this period are the stone, bronze and octal metal statues of Brahma, Vishnu, Nataraj, Kings queens etc. Apart from Shiva statues, bronze statues of other Shaivite goods like Parvati, Shankar, Kartikeya and Ganesha etc. were made.

Painting – Chola painting was a developed form of the pallava -pandey branch. In the wall paintings, the religious paintings done on the walls of Brihadeshwar temple were influenced by the Ajanta paintings. Pictures of Shiva, Kailash, Nandi etc. were made. Excellent examples of painting are found in Thanjavur.

Literature – The Chola rulers were patrons of eudcation and literature. Temples and Gram Mahasabhas were centres of education and learning. Tamil and Sanskrit languages were prevalent. Tamil had royal patronage. Kamban wrote a book named ‘Ramavatara’. Kamban lived in the court of Kolottunga III. Jayangondar wrote a treatise ‘Kalitunga Parni’. He was the court poet of Chola ruler Kolottunga I.

Shekkillaar’s ‘Priyapuranam’ and ‘Pulagendis’s ‘Nalabemba’ were important literary creations. The other important creations included religious treatises – Tirutatondapuram’ by Priya Purnam or Shekhara; Nandi’s Tiruvillaiyadal Purnam’, Amudnaar’s ‘Ramanuj Nurandadi’, ‘Tirukadevar’s, “Shivakoshindamani’ etc., and Buddhimitra’s Virasolium’, Pabandi’s ‘Nannore’ etc. were the major grammar tomes.

Trade and industry was very much developed in Gupta period. 

Their internal trade and foreign trade can be understood as follows :

Internal Trade – In the Gupta period, trade and industry were at their peak. Internal trade was conducted through roads and rivers. Among the items of internal trade were included almost all commodities of daily use, which were mainly sold in the markets of cities and villages. Luxury products included articles brought from distant lands.

Ujjain, Bharuch, Pratisthan, Vidisha, Prayag, Patliputra, Vaishali, Tamralipti, Mathura, Ahichchatra, Kaushambi etc. were important commercial cities.

Foreign Trade – Indian ports had permanent sea trade connections with many foreign countries. These countries were China, Sri Lanka, Perisa, Arabia, Ethiopia, Byzentine (Roman empire) and islands of Indian ocean. In Gupta era, trade with China reached at a new height. Chinese silk called ‘Chinashunk’ was very popular in Indian markets.

The weakened western foreign trade due to fall of Roman empire became strong again upon establishment of the Byzantine empire. Commodities were exported from there, mainly included silk and spices. Bhrigukachch (Bharuch) was a famous port of the western coast.

Cambay, Sopara and Kalyan were other important ports. Tamralipti was the largest centre of sea trade in the eastern part of India. Merchant ships from Indonesia, China and Sri Lanka came here. India imported silk from China, ivory from Ethiopia and horses from Arabia, Iran and Bacteria.

They were called Valaikkor.

Harsha divided his state revenue into four parts.

Karaikal founded ‘Puhar’ Pattam (Kaveri Pattanam) at the bank of river Kaveri.

The administrative structure under the Mauryan administration can be presented as follows, Central Administration:

The king – The king was the central power of the administrative system. All important and policy related decisions were taken by the king himself. All administrative, judicial, and executive powers were vested in the king.

Council of ministers -A council of ministers played an advisory role to the king and it was selected and appointed on the basis of their desendence and ability.

Officers – These were the senior most state officials who were 18 in number. They were called ‘Teertha’. Koshadhyaksha, Karmantik, Samaharta, Purohit and Senapati were the major officials.

Regional Administration – The Mauryan empire was divided into four regionsUttarpath, Dakshinapath, Avantipath, and Madhya Pranta. Provinces were further divided, into ‘Aahar’ or ‘vis’ which were headed by Vispati’.

City Administration – There were 6 committees of 5 members each. According to Arthshastra, ‘Nagrak’ was the head of city administration and ‘Gopa’ and ‘Sthanik’ were his assisting officials.

District and Rural Regions – Pradehsti, Rajuk and Yukta were responsible for administration of land, justice and accounting functions. Gramik was the rural level officer. Gopa and Sthanik were the intermediaries between districts and villages.

Justice Religion, conduct, character and state rule were the sources of judicial code. Dharmasthiya, and Kantak Shodhak court settled civil and criminal cases respectively.

Judicial council system was well – developed and the king was the highest judge. Rajuk, Vyavaharik etc. were some of the main judicial officers. Sangrahan and Dronamukha were local and district level courts. Penal system was very harsh.

The Army – Senapati was the highest officer of the armed forces.

The army had six divisions – foot soldiers, horse cavalry, elephants, chariots, transport and naval force. Committees of 5 members each oversaw these forces. Chaturangbal was the main organ of the army. Nayaka led the army in battles.

An elaborate network of spies was also set up. It kept close watch on the activities of common people to ministers. Spies were called ‘Sanstha’ and ‘Sanchaar’.

Revenue Administration – Samaharta was the chief officer of revenue system. Durg, Rashtra, Vraja, Setu, forests, mines, import – export were main sources of revenue collection. Sannidhata was the chief officer of the treasure.

In Gupta period, metal: craft, textile production, ornament art, woodcraft and stone craft, ivory work etc. saw special progress. Metal craft developed remarkably. A grand example of it is the Iron pillar of Mehrauli. A fine example of copper work of Gupta era is the huge copper.

statue of the Buddha which was found in Sultanganj (District Bhagalpur, Bihar). It is kept in a museum in Birmingham, England. The best form of metal craft of this period can be seen in the coins of this period. Stamps put on copper plates in this era, are also fine example of metal craft.

In Chandragupta II’s period, apart from gold coins, silver and copper coins were also used. These coins have been called ‘Dinar’. Textile manufacturing was also a major industry in the Gupta period, which is mentioned in ‘Amarkosh’. In this period, very fine cloth was made for the affluent class. Textile had a major place in south – north trade in India.

Indian textile was a great demand in foreign markets. Silk fabric, muslin, linen, woollen and cotton textiles were in great demand in foreign countries. The art of ornament making was quite advanced during Gupta era. Various kinds of gemstones were also used apart from gold and silver to make ornaments. ‘Brihatsamhita’ describes 22 types of gemstones.

Sudarshan lake was re – constructed by Skandagupta.

Correct Answer is: (a) centralised rule  (b) local autonomy 

Ujjain, Bharuch, Vidisha, Prayag, Vaishali, Tamralipti, Mathura, Ahichhatra, Kaushambi etc. were main commercial cities of Gupta era.

In Gupta period, remarkable progress was observed in various branches of science and technology. Mathematics, astronomy, chemistry, physics, ayurveda, surgery etc. progressed in a major way. Aryabhatta composed philosophical formulas and Aryashta Shataka treaties. He propounded the principles of earth’s spherical shape and its rotation about its axis.

Bhaskara I wrote ‘Bhasya’ and commentaries on Aryabhatta’s Dashagitik formulas and ‘Aryashta Shataka’. Varahamitra wrote treatises like ‘Panch Siddaantika’, Brihata Samthita’ and ‘Brihata Jalika’. He invented the method of determining square root and cube root. Brahmagupta wrote ‘Brahmaphuta Siddhanta’, ‘Khanda Khadaka’ etc. and also propounded the principle of gravity.

Kanad rishi propounded Vaisheshik Darshan’ and the theory of atom in the Gupta period. Nagarjuna was a scholar of chemistry and metallurgical science. He defined and proved the treatment of various diseases by use of minerals like gold, silver etc. and invented “Parada’.

Shrenis had special knowledge of techniques. Melting of metals through chemical process and their casting developed significantly. Mehrauli’s iron pillar is a fine example of casting and metallurgical expertise.

Fa – hien has mentioned religious tolerance, simple penal system, absence of locks in homes, non-use of onion and garlic which indicate the minimality of crime, safety of property, non – violent tendency and pure nature of people. Political unity and efficient organisation was seen for the first time after the Mauryans.

Economy was infused with currency and coinage in the Gupta era. Industry and trade were progressive. Spirituality and decency and Indianness were clearly marked in the art of this period. The cave paintings of Ajanta, Bagh, the temples of Deogarh, Bheetrigaon etc., Sculptures of Vishnu, Buddha, Mahavir etc.

are the symbols of the acme of the art of this period which manifest social prosperity and harmony. In literature; Kalidas, Harisena, Vishnu Sharma, etc. produced literary works of high quality. Aryabhatta, Varahmihira, Nagarjuna etc. developed various disciples of science and the propagation of Indian culture in foreign lands took place in the Gupta period.

The Gupta period is considered to be the best on account of political unity, valiant emperors, economic prosperity, religious tolerance, inclusion of foreigners in the Hindu faith, resurrection of Hindu religion, progress of Sanskrit literature, advancement of all arts and propagation of Indian culture.

Due to these accomplishments, the Gupta era was undoubtedly the Golden Age’ of ancient India. Sri Arvind wrote, “India never witnessed the flourishing of its life – strength in various spheres, in its entire history, as in the Gupta era.”

Samudragupta initially carried out a military campaign in Aryavarta or the GangaYamuna plains, which was completed in two stages. He defeated nine kings – Rudradeva, Matil, Nagadatta, Chandravarman, Ganapati, Naga, Nagasen, Achyut, Nandi and Balvarma and annexed their territories.

He defeated 12 kingdoms in the south but later freed them under the treaty of sovereignty over enemy territory and Moksha. He also defeated the Attavikas of central India and made them his vassals. Hence he conquered a large part of India and unified it under one rule.

The Chola kings organised a huge army with a view to protect their empire and achieve conquests. It had three organs – Padati, Ashwarohi, and Gajarohi. In the chola standing army; soldiers like foot soldiers, elephant soldiers, and cavalry (horse) soldiers etc. were included.

The elephant army was called ‘Kunjer – Mallar’, the horse army was called ‘Kudiraichaivagar’, the archers were called ‘Billigarh’, the spearmen were called ‘Saigundar’. The Cholas had formed a powerful naval force also. They used their naval force for both commercial and military purposes. Rajaraja I used his navy to conquer Sri Lanka, Maldweep and Lakshadweep and expanded his empire.

The famous poet Harisena lived in Samudragupta’s court. He described Samudragupta’s victorious compaigns in ‘Prayag Prashati’ inscriptions. This inscription is written on the same pillar on which Ashoka’s inscription is written. This is located in Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh.

This is an important historical source of the Gupta period. In ‘Prayag Prashasti’, Samudragupta has been described as ‘Kaviraj’, Shaming Guru Tumbru and Narada in singing and musical ability, donor of lakhs of cows, scholar of superior quality, preserver of knowledge and rampart of religion.

1. Kadambari, 

2. Harshacharita.

It was 1 / 3rd of the production.

Chola adminstration had a monarchical and dynastic form. The king was the head of administration and many officials aided him in his duties. The Chola kings organised a huge army with a view to protect their empire and achieve conquests. It had three organs – Padati, Ashwarohi, and Gajarohi. The Chola rulers used their navy for both commercial and military purposes.

The main source of state revenue was land revenue. Probably the land tax was 1/3rd of the total crop production. Other sources of state revenue wer-trade, commerce, importexport, and irrigation taxes.

(a)  3 4 1 2

The Hunas invaded during the Gupta emperor Skandagupta’s reign.

In the Chola empire, the king was the highest judge of the land. The king ministered justice with the help of ‘Dharmasanabhatt a Brahmin scholar having knowledge of Smriti Shastra. Regular legal codes were made for justice and courts were set up.

Gram Panchayats had provision of a ‘Jatiya Panchayat. On minor issues, local corporations handed down judicial decisions. In Chola penal system, there was provision for both monetary penalities as well as social ostracisation. Generally monetary penalties had to be given in form of Kaashu (gold coins).

Main Chola ports were – Mahabalipuram, and Kaveri Pattanam.

It was divided into three parts – Padati, Ashwarohi and Gajarohi. Besides this the Chola rulers had a powerful navy also.

Rajendra III was the last ruler of the Chola Empire.

Notable progress took place in various branches of science and technology during Gupta period.

It can be presented as follows:

1. Aryabhatta propounded the principles of Earth’s spherical shape and its rotation about its axis. 

2. Varahmihir invented the method of determining square root and cube root and discussed the science of astronomy in detail. 

3. Brahmagupta propounded the principle of Gravity. 

4. Dhanvantri was a famous Ayurvedic and surgical expert.

The main achievements of the Chola Dynasty are its local administration, navy, Tamil texts, (gramthas), huge temples and idols etc.

Correct Answer is: (a) Rajaraja – I

In Chola empire, the main source of state income was land revenue. Before fixing land taxes, the land was surveyed, categorized and measured. Contemporary inscriptions tell us that the length of Rajaraja I’s and Kulottungas leg became the unit of measuring the extent of land. Land tax for agriculture was fixed after ascertaining soil fertility and annnual crop rotation. Probably the land tax was 1 / 3rd of the total crop production.

Apart from land tax, the other taxes in Chola empire were – Aayam (revenue tax), Manairai (house-tax), Kadhairai (tax levied on business institutions), Maganmai (trade tax), Aajeevikashu (livelihood tax). Other sources of state income were trade, commerce, import – export and irrigation taxes.

Rajendra I ascended the Chola throne in around 1014 CE. He was an able ruler like his father Rajaraja I. In Kalinga, the Chola armies defeated the Eastern Ganga ruler Madhukamanarva. In eastern India’s Bengal, he defeated the ruler Mahipala.

Upon the success of his Gangetic Valley campaign, he assumed the title of ‘Gangekonda Chola’. And to commemorate this conquest, he built his new capital ‘Gange Kondacholapuram’ on the bank of river Kaveri.

The most significant feature of Chola administration was local autonomy at the rural and urban levels. These were carried out by representative institutions-Ur, Sabha, Mahasabha and Nagaram. Their members had to have certain educational, economic, and moral qualifications. These elected members were called ‘Peru Makkal’.

Member committels called ‘Vaarium’, looked after irrigation facilities, land dislribution, land taxation, realisation of taxes, maintenance of temples, justice, administrative functions etc. Ur was an assembly of ordinary tax paying adults men, while only Brahmin members were allowed in Sabha and Mahasabha.

These institutions enjoyed internal autonomy and central interference was negligible. In fact villages were small republics. In this way Chola adminstration was a well organised and efficient one.

Kadambari, and Harshacharita.

Banabhatta, and Jaisena.

1. Secular Literature

2. Religious Literature:

Vedic, Jain, Buddhist texts and Puranas

Vijayalaya is considered the second founder of the Chola Empire.

Karaikal was the most important among the early Chola kings. 

Some of his main achievements are as follows:

1. This imperialist ruler defeated the joint armies of Valeri and eleven other rulers at a place Vanni and gained fame. 

2. He defeated the combined armies of nine small rulers of Vahepparandlai. 

3. He founded ‘Puhar Pattam (Kaveri Pattanam) at the bank of river Kaveri. 

4. He had a powerful navy and was probably the greatest and mightiest ruler of the Sangam age.

(i) Abhigyanhakuntalam, 

(ii) Raghuvansham.

Nalanda was a major education centre of India. Probably Gupta emperor Kumargupta I constructed it. Its fame was at its top during the Gupta and medieval periods. Students from the country and abroad came to gain education here. Admissions were made through an entrance test.

Teachers and students numbered more than 10,000. Here eaucation was given related to religion, science, industry, logic etc. There also existed a grand library. Ganamati, Sthiramati, Sheelbhadra were famous chancellors here.

1. Iron played a significant role in this transformation of society.

2. The fertile soil of the Gangetic Valley and the use of iron ploughshares improved , agricultural productivity.

3. Iron facilitated craft production.

4. Agrarian surplus and increase in craft products resulted in the emergence of trading and exchange centres.

5. There were rise of towns and cities.

Heiun – Tsang was a Buddhist Chinese traveller who visited India during Harsha’s reign. He came to India with the objective of seeing Buddhist holy places and to study Buddhist treatiss. 

He gave the following description about India.

1. Contemporary society was divided into Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra Varnas (castes). The first three castes were affluent. They paid more attention to cleanliness and lifestyle. Shudras were engaged in agriculture and service.

2. The land was fertile and people were prosperous. Gold and silver coins and cowrie shells were generally used as currency. India had trade relations with China, Central Asia, and the west.

3. The main objective of the religious life was obtaining enlightenment. The king and the subjects were tolerant of all religions. Idol worship was prevalant in all regions.

4. The administrative system was based on welfare and benevolent principles. Crimes were few.

5. Education was provided through Viharas and Gurukuls. Vedas were recited orally and the Brahmi script was prevalent.

eiun – Tsang was a Buddhist Chinese traveller who visited India during Harsha’s rule. About the economic condition during Harsha’s reign, he wrote – the land was fertile and people were prosperous. Gold and silver coins and cowrie shells were generally used as currency. The business of textile manufacturing was developed. Shreni system was prevalent in the society.

Cities like Tamralipti, Bharuch, Pataliputra etc. were commercial centres. India had trade relations with China, Central Asia and the west. Textiles and spices were exported and horses, gold and silver were major items of import. Agricultural tax was 1/6th of the total production.

Agriculture tax during Harsha’s reign was 1 / 6th of the production.

1. Nalanda University, 

2. Vallabhi University.

(d) All the three

Mashakas were made out of copper

The regions which produced specialised textiles under the Mauryas were Kasi (Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam) and Madurai in Tamilnadu.

Check and stripes cloth was manufactured at places such as Lahore, Sarhind, Calcutta, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur, Madras and Pandicherry, etc.

Egypt imported clothes from India. This is evident from the fact that mummies made by the Egyptians in Egypt were covered with Indian muslin cloth.

1. Domestic Trade – Trade done within the boundaries of a country is known as domestic trade. 

2. International Trade – Trade done between two or more than two countries is known as international trade. In ancient times, international trade of India was conducted with countries such as Babylon, Egypt, Java, Sumatra and Rome, etc.