Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Thucycidides was the author of the book ‘Peloponnesian wars’.

‘Oedipus Rex’, ‘Antigone’ and ‘Electra’ were the works of Sophocles.

Macedonia, in North-Eastern Greece, became an important Kingdom, under Philip II.

‘Prometheus Bound’ and ‘Agamemnon’ were two of the works of Aeschylus.

Roman Contributions in science were very limited. Most of the conclusions reached by Roman scientists were philosophical, and not the result of careful experimentation. They were the first to provide free medicine to poor patients. They maintained personal cleanliness, and for this purpose they built baths. They constructed hospitals and patients were treated by qualified Physicians.

The greatest Physician was Galen (130-200 CE). He wrote on Human Anatomy and Physiology. The knowledge of Human Anatomy enabled them to conduct operations and to remove goitres and tonsils. Galen was one of the first to discover the circulation of blood. The ‘Natural History’ of Pliny was a large Compendium of all known Science. Aretacus was the first to describe the symptoms of Diabetes and Diphtheria. The Romans borrowed the Etruscan rotation system, but it was not developed much above the level of arithmetic. Roman numerals I, X, L, C, etc. are still used today. The ancient Romans used numerals for commercial mathematics.

His important works are‘The Politics’ and ‘History of animals’.

Ptolemy believed that the Earth was the centre of the Universe.

Athenians made remarkable progress in politics, laws, literature, art, science, and philosophy. Monarchy and Oligarchy did not suit their temperament and so were discarded and with the contributions of Draco, Solon, and Cleisthenes, Democracy came into existence in Athens.

Herophilus is called as the ‘Father of Anatomy’.

The greatest of Greek philosophers was Aristotle, a student of Plato at his Academy and he was the teacher of Alexander the Great. He was both a Philosopher and a Scientist and wrote on many subjects. He is regarded as the father of three branches of knowledge, namely Philosophy, Biology and Political Science. He said that ‘Man is a social animal’. He encouraged constitutional Governments. He classified and organized the different branches of knowledge segregating Physics, Metaphysics, Logic, and Ethics. His important works were ‘The Politics’ and ‘History of Animals’. That is why he is considered as the ‘Walking University’.

Emperor Constantine shifted the capital to Constantinople.

It was built of coloured marble stones. 

The Romans were stupendous builders. Temples, Theatres, fine Public Buildings, Baths, and homes were built in large numbers. Pompey’s Theatre (55 BCE) was a magnificent structure. Augustus erected the Imperial Palace on the Palatine, one of the seven Hills of Rome. Vespasian built the Coliseum, where gladiatorial contests were held. Probably the most famous and best-preserved of Roman buildings is the Pantheon. It was originally built during the time of Augustus and it was fully rebuilt during the time of Hadrian. Justinian Church of Saint Sophia at Constantinople is still regarded as the most magnificent building of its kind in the near east. Romans were the inventors of concrete. They also introduced two architectural improvements.

1. Arches 

2. Cupolas or Domes. 

An efficient water distribution system and well paved and durable roads are examples of Roman engineering. Roads were primarily built for the movement of armies and for trade with distant parts of the world. So complete was Rome’s system of roads, linking all parts of the Empire, that there is a saying that ‘All roads lead to Rome’. Frontinus wrote a pioneering work on engineering.

Romans developed their sculptures on Greek models. Buildings were decorated with Sculptures and Bas Reliefs. Most of the Sculptures depicted Emperors, placed in-City squares as symbols of their authority and power. The Unknown Roman is the best-known example of their. sculpture. Most of the Roman paintings have disappeared. The best of the surviving murals are found in Pompeii. The art of painting was revived through Christian influence in Church Frescoes in the later period.

He helped Athenian merchants by introducing Coin-Currency and encouraged foreign artisans to settle in Athens. He brought about a system by which the people as a whole gained the power of electing their magistrates and judging their work. His reforms benefitted both middle and poor class Athenians.

Macedonia and Greece came under the control of Antigonus. 

Herodotus (485-425 B.C.E) is regarded as the ‘The Father of History’.

Sparta, Athens, Macedonia, Corinth, and Thebes were the important City-States.

Sappho and Pindar. 

Augustan age is popularly called the ‘Golden age’ in the history of Rome.

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were the Dramatists of Periclean age.

Socrates and his pupil Plato were the great Philosophers during the age of Pericles.

Alexander with his 35,000 soldiers, marched against the Persian empire. He defeated them in the battles of Granicus, Issus, and Arable.

The city of Rome was founded by the twin brothers, Romulus, and Remus in 753 BCE, on the Palatine hill.

1. The Palatine 

2. The Capitoline 

3. The Caelian 

4. The Esquiline 

5. The Aventine 

6. The Viminal 

7. The Quirinal.

The first inhabitants of Italy came from North Africa, Spain, and France.

Julius Caesar.

Herodotus (485-425 B.C.E) who is regarded as the father of history and Thucycidides (471¬400 B.C.E) were two important Historians of the Periclean Age.

Coliseum was an Amphitheatre in Rome for holding fights between Gladiators. It was built in 80CE by Emperor Vespasian. It could accommodate about 50000 people.

It is the most famous and best-preserved of Roman buildings. It was built during the time of Augustus and later rebuilt during the time of Hadrian.

Earlier, laws were interpreted by the priests. The first written code came in the form of ‘Twelve Tables’ in 150 BCE.

(C) The power of collecting Revenue in a particular region

Agrippa and Maecenas.

 He was a great ruler and a wise Statesman. After several years of political turmoil, Rome enjoyed more than three decades of peace. He not only built an Empire but also was a great patron of Art and Literature. His reign is called as the ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Rome. Julius Caesar’s assassination by the Brutus led Liberators, caused great political and social turmoil in Rome. The power passed into the hands of Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian who formed the ‘Second Triumvirate’.

The conspirators were defeated in the battle of Philippi and Brutus and Cassius were killed. The Triumvirate divided the Empire amongst themselves-Lepidus was in charge of Africa, Antony ruled in the Eastern Province and Octavian remained in Italy and controlled Gaul (France and Belgium). However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony deteriorated. Lepidus was forced to retire (after betraying Octavian in Sicily). Antony was living in Egypt and in the battle of ‘Actium’ was defeated by Octavian.

With the conquest of Egypt, anew Era began for Romans. By 27 BCE, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. His leadership brought the Zenith to Roman civilization that lasted for two centuries. He ruled the Roman Empire for 44 years with the titles ‘Augustus’, ‘Imperator’ and ‘Princeps’.

With the conquest of Egypt, anew Era began for Romans. By 27 BCE, Octavian was the sole Roman leader. His leadership brought the Zenith to Roman civilization that lasted for two centuries. He ruled the Roman Empire for 44 years with the titles ‘Augustus’, ‘Imperator’ and ‘Princeps’.

The Government established by him was known as the ‘Principate’- ‘Government by the Princeps’ – The first citizen. Augustus introduced many reforms which had far-reaching consequences in Rome. He gave, ‘A centre to the System, a Chief to the Civil service, a Head to the Army, a Sovereign to the Subjects, a Protector to the Provinces and Peace to the Empire’.

He recognized the Governments of the conquered territories, stopped plunder and corruption and strengthened law and order. New Courts and Postal Services were established. Augustus continued the calendar promoted by Julius Caesar and the month ‘August’ is named after him. The Emperor kept the poor people happy by supplying food grains.

He spent money lavishly on the construction of public buildings, roads, bridges, amphitheaters, and fountains. The most important Amphitheatre was the Coliseum built at Rome. This could accommodate about 50000 people. Due to the construction of the well-paved interlinking system of roads, Rome became the nerve centre of trade and commerce in the Mediterranean world.

He maintained diplomatic and commercial contacts with a number of countries including India and China. There were the Generals Agrippa and Maecenas, and Writers, Poets, and Historians like Livy, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Pliny and Tacitus in his time. Jesus Christ was born during his reign.

Augustan age is popularly called as ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Rome. It was known for peace and prosperity. This period is known as ‘Pax Romana’ or Roman peace. He gave the idea of the ‘World State’. His imperial system lasted for nearly 500 years and saved the great treasures of Greco-Roman civilization. 

Pax Romana means Roman peace. The Roman Empire under Augustus Caesar brought about a period of great peace in the Mediterranean World as never before.

Livy and Virgil.

1. Allasani Peddana, 

2. Nandi Timmana, 

3. Madayagaari Mallana, 

4. Dhurjati, 

5. Ayyala Raju Ramabhadrudu, 

6. Pingali Surana 

7. Rama Raja Bhushana and 

8. Tenali Rama Krishna

Gaius Octavius.

C) Prolaya Vema Reddy

(B) Amaranayakas

(D) Sri Krishnadevaraya

Since the kingdom of Vijayanagara was a highly militarized one, it was free from inva¬sions. Thus there was peace and security in the Vijayanagara kingdom. But they spent a lot of money on acquiring guns and cannons, and for purchasing horses. They employed Muslims and the Portuguese to get their soldiers trained in the modern war¬fare. They must have levied heavy taxes on the common people to pay for the military expenditure. Thus the common people must have affected by the heavy taxation.

1. The Nayakas settled down in various parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu, especially in regions with black cotton soils. 

2. All over the empire, tanks/reservoirs for capturing rainwater and other drainage water were constructed.

3. They built irrigation tanks and canals. 

4. Even temples invested their own endowments in irrigation and were sharing the enhanced production with those who worked their lands. 

5. All these efforts resulted in the expansion of agriculture into hew areas and a tremendous increase in agricultural production.

(C) Domingo Paes

(D) A group of poets during the period of Krishnadevaraya

C) Krishna Devaraya

Livy, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Pliny, and Tacitus were the ones.

(D) Krishnadevaraya

1. The Nayakas – the peasant soldiers brought land under cultivation. 

2. All over the empire tanks/reservoirs for capturing rainwater and other drainage water, were constructed by the kings, chiefs, nayakas and traders.

1. The entire kingdom was actually controlled and administered by the commanders of these armies. 

2. The captains of these troops are the nobles of his kingdom and they hold the city, the towns and the villages of the kingdom.

3. The king fixes for each according to his revenue the number of troops which he must maintain on foot, on horse and on elephants. 

4. Besides maintaining these troops, each captain has to make his annual payments to the king. 

5. The captains – the nayakas held Amara revenue assignments-that is they were given assignments that is they were given some villages and cities whose revenue they could collect and use. 

6. They had an obligation to collect revenue, to maintain a certain number of troops, to administer the areas under their control, to have judicial powers too. 

7. Most of the amaranayakas were Telugu warriors. 

8. The nayakas recruited their own soldiers from among their own villages and trained them. 

9. Many powerful nayakas controlled vast areas and at times could even challenge the Vijayanagara kings.

Most of the Amaranayakas were Telugu warriors. They recruited their soldiers. These armies were loyal to the Nayakas rather than to the king. They were the revenue, military and judicial heads of their own land assignments. They have the responsibilities of maintaining a certain number of troops, collecting revenue from his land assignments, administering his land holdings and having judicial powers. So with lots of power and authority over his assignments, there is no wonder for them to become so powerful that when a king died they took power in their own hands and themselves became kings.