Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

Nature: The nature of the Indian party system can be traced back to the Indian National Movement. Indian National Congress (INC) was founded by A.O. Hume in 1885. It was a forum to unite the people of India to fight against the British Imperialism.

Due to ideological differences, Muslim League was founded in 1906. Other parties like Hindu Maha Sabha, Communist Party of India, Forward Block, and Praja Socialist Party, etc., emerged in the successive years. Later, in the post-independence period, Jan Sangh, Janatha Party, Bharatiya Janatha Party, Janata Dal, Nationalist Congress Party, have grown according to the needs of the time and they started to work to get power.

1. Extra Constitutional growth: There is no reference in the Constitution of India about how many political parties are to be existed in the country. According to Article 19 of the Constitution, all citizens can have the freedom to form associations or unions. Political parties are established on the basis of this liberty. Hence, political parties have no constitutional base.

2. Prevalence of Multi-party system: India is a divergent country with many religions, tribes, languages, culture, and traditions. This heterogeneity leads to the emergence of many political parties to protect their interests in the mainstream of the country.

3. Spilt and merger: It is a common phenomenon in the Indian party system. Various reasons contributed for this split like ideological differences, egoism, power hunger, etc.

4. End of single-party era: India was under Congress rule till 1977. The happenings between 1975-1977, forced small parties to unite and fight against Congress and capture power and put an end to the single-party era.

5. Dissident activities: The meanness of leaders like personal attitudes, favouritism, nepotism lead to dissident activities. Repetition of such happenings instigates leaders to go against the ideology of the party and paves was to political instability.

6. Defection: Elected members of the Legislature change their parties often for personal benefits or differences of opinion and other reasons. It ruins the values of democracy and destabilizes the government.

7. Leader worship: Most of the political parties in India emphasize on the leaders rather than the ideologies of the parties. The leader decides the destiny of the political party e.g. Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi of Congress, A.B. Vajpayee of BJP. Leaders with charisma dominate the whole party.

8. Alliances without principles: Political parties are formed with principles of democracy and secularism but they ignore them for want of power and make unholy alliances.

9. Dominance of Regional parties: The presence of regional parties during the first general elections did not influence the voters and they were rejected. During the 1980s, they emerged very strong and dominated the political scenario, e.g. DMK, A1ADMK, Telugu Desam, Shiv Sena National, Conference, AGP, JD(S), RJD, SJP, BJD and other parties playing a significant role during the formation of Government.

10. Religious, Lingual and Regionalism: The basis of political parties in India is religion, language, regionalism and the like. e.g. Muslim league, Akalidal, Shiv Sena, DMK, A1ADMK, Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti (MES) Telangana Rastriya Samiti (TRS) and others. In spite of the rules of the Election Commission, such political parties exist.

11. Leftist and Rightist Parties: Party system in India consists of Leftist and Rightist ideologies, e.g. CPI, CPI (M), Forward Block, RPI and Socialist parties who have belief in revolutionary ideology and drastic changes in the system form the left front. Parties like Congress, BJP, SP, NCP, BSP, RJD, JD (U), JD (S) and others who believe in moderate changes in the system form the right front.

12. The era of coalition: When no single political party secures absolute majority likeminded political parties come together and join as a single largest group to form a coalition Government. The era of coalition started during 1977 when Janata Party came to power headed by Sri Morarjee Desai as Prime Minister at the centre along with other parties. This was followed by National Front, United Front, NDA, UPA, etc.

(a) i is incorrect.

Corruption is as old as human history. It has existed in human society in one form or the other. Kautilya said that “As it is impossible not to taste the honey that one finds at the tip of the tongue, it is also impossible for a government official not to eat up at least a bit of King’s revenue”. He identified about 40 forms of corruption. This legacy has continued unabated after India’s Independence. 

Corruption is plaguing the Indian society and polity.

Causes:

1. Greediness: Thomas Hobbes viewed man as selfish, acquisitive, aggressive and greedy. This encourages him to amass wealth whenever he gets an opportunity. Therefore people fight and compete for power and position. They make hay while the sun shines. In the land of Harishchandra, Buddha, Gandhi and Jayaprakash Narain, it is unfortunate that most of the politicians and bureaucrats have indulged in corrupt activities.

For them, end justifies the means. Nepotism, favouritism and cronyism are pervasive phenomena in India’s Public Administration. Conduct rules adopted for all India Services and Railway Services have not deterred the officials from corrupt practices.

2. Selfishness: “Service to the people is Service to God” has been ignored by the people in power. They work for their benefit but not for the society though service is their motto.

3. Corrupt politicans: Though the election system is flawless, the process of implementation is corrupted. Votes are being purchased and voters are driven to polling booths in order to get votes in their favour.

4. Lack of Morality: Parents and elders at home, teachers in class rooms have to impart moral education. Because it is said that destiny of the country is shaped in class rooms. In case it is not done, it leads to deterioration of values which finally leads to corruption.

The causes few Feminist Movement are as follows.

1. Inequality: It is evident that Indian society is male dominated and preference is given to the male members. Though men and women are born equally and Consitution also uphold the equality between the two, women are deprived of education, employment, decision making, and property rights. This has led to agitation.

2. The evils of dowry: Hie evils of dowry have forced parents to become debtors, the girls to brothels and uneven sex ratio through female foeticide and infanticide. As a result of this uneven ratio of men and women in society, rape and other heinous crimes are on-die rise.

3. Denial of human rights: The atrocities on women have denied them human rights and other rights like right to life, liberty, freedom of expression and others. Their existence and survival depends upon the mercy of the male members. Decision making is the birth right of men in matters of education, marriage, property rights and family issues.

4. Social strata based on gender: Men have not spared any of the fields including cultural, social, religious, political and exercise their monopoly and continue their attrocities on women. Women are treated as slaves and bonded labourers. This has made the women to organize themselves and start an agitation.

5. Sexual abuse and molestation: Irrespective of the age, time and place, the above heinous crimes are taking place. To regain the right to decide about children or to get aborted without the interference of husband or politicians through governmental policies, women are uniting together and fighting for justice.

6. Domestic violence: Women shoulder the entire household responsibilities like raring and caring of, children, domestic work and the related tasks. The cohabitants of the family become the victims of domestic violence because of irresponsible, illiterate and drunkard husbands who lack discretion. This may take the form of physical, mental, sexual harassment and finally it may take women’s life as a toll. To avoid such violence, women organisations are established.

(c) The Assertion is true, but the Reason is false.

Answer is (d) b & c

Communalism is an ideology of the followers of one particular religion considering the followers of other religions as inferior to them. A particular religion is assumed as a homogenous and distinct group, disrespecting other religions.

The causes for Feminist Movement are as follows.

1. Inequality: It is evident that Indian society is male dominated and preference is given to the male members. Though men and women are born equally and the Consitution also upholds the equality between the two, women are deprived of education, employment, decision making, and property rights. This has led to agitations.

2. The evils of dowry: The evils of dowry have forced parents to become debtors, the girls to brothels and uneven ratio through female foeticide and infanticide. As a result of this uneven ratio of men and women in the society, rape and other heinous crimes are on the rise.

3. Denial of human rights: The attrocities on women have denied them human rights and other rights like right to life, liberty, freedom of expression and others. Their existence and survival depends upon the mercy of the male members. Decision making is the birth right of men in matters of education, marriage, property rights and family issues.

4. Social strata based on gender: Men have not spared any of the fields including cultural, social, religious, political and exercise their monopoly and continue their attrocities on women. Women are treated as slaves and bonded labourers. This has made the women to organize themselves and start an agitation.

5. Sexual abuse and molestation: Irrespective of the age, time and place, the above heinous crimes are taking place. To regain the right to decide about children or to get aborted without the interference of husband or politicians through governmental policies, women are uniting together and fighting for justice.

6. Domestic violence: Women shoulder the entire household responsibilites like raring and caring of children, domestic work and the related tasks. The cohabitants of the family become the victims of domestic violence because of irresponsible, illiterate and drunkard husbands who lack discreation. This may take the form of physical, mental, sexual harassment and finally it may take women’s life as toll. To avoid such violence, women organisations are established.

It comprises Marriage and Divorce, Civil procedures and criminal laws. Preventive Detention etc.

The reforms of 1919, failed to fulfill the aspirations of the people of India. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started agitation for ‘Swaraj’ to be attained through ‘Non-cooperation’.

As per the Government of India Act 1919, a statutory commission was to be appointed at the expiration of ten years after the passing of the Act for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the system and the development of representative institutions in India.

The British Government appointed a Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) in 1927, to enquire into the report of the 1919 Act. This was done as a concession to the Indian demand for an early revision of the Act. The commission headed by Sir John Simon consisted of 7 members from the British Parliament.

It did not have a single Indian as a member. It was taken as an insult to the self-respect of India and hence was boycotted. Amidst protests of, “Simon, go back”, the commission visited India. It announced in 1929, that ‘Dominion status’ was the goal of Indian developments.

Gandhi lead the 1^st Round Table Conference held in 1930. Dr. Ambedkar lead the 2^nd in 1931 and again the 3^rd Round table Conference in 1932. The outcome of these conferences was announced in the form of ‘white paper’. It provided for –

• Educational facilities and reservation in politics for depressed classes. 
• Universal Adult Franchise. 
• Prohibition of social boycott. 
• Communal representation. 
• Separate electorate for the untouchables. Simon commission brought the report of the resolutions of the conferences, but Gandhi opposed the separate electorate for untouchables and decided to fast unto death.

Congress leaders met Gandhi in his regard, and he was convinced. The resolution was modified by providing reservations for depressed classes instead of separate electorate for the untouchables. This was popularly known as ‘Poona pact’ signed by Gandhi and Ambedkar.

A White paper was prepared on the results of these conferences. It was examined by the Joint select committee of the British Parliament and in accordance with its recommendations, the Government of India Act 1935 was passed.

The act contained 321 Articles and 13 schedules. The important provisions of the Act are:

1. Federation: The Act provided for the establishment of ‘Federation of India’. It consisted of provinces of British India and the Princely states as units. For the first time, an attempt was made to establish a Federal Government.

2. Distribution of power: It divided legislative powers between the Central and Provincial legislatures. There was a threefold division.

a. Federal list: It consisted of 59 subjects like external affairs, currency, defense, etc., over which the federal legislature had legislative power.

b. Provincial list: It consisted of 54 subjects like police, education, etc., over which provincial legislatures had jurisdiction.

c. Concurrent list: This consisted of 36 subjects like criminal law, civil procedures, marriage, and divorce, etc., over which both the federal and provincial legislatures had competence.

d. The Residuary powers were vested with the Governor-General.

3. Diarchy at the centre: The Diarchy which was established in the provinces by the Act of 1919 was now adopted at the centre. The executive authority vested with the Governor-General included the following:

a. The administration of reserved subjects like defence, external affairs, etc. was done by Governor-General with the help of ‘Councilors’, who were appointed by him and not responsible to the legislature.

b. In the matters of transferred subjects, Governor-General acted, on the advice of ‘Council of Ministers’, who were responsible to the legislature.

4. The Federal Legislatures: The central legislature was bi-cameral consisting of Federal Assembly and the Council of States.

a. The Council of States consisted of 260 members, of which 156 (60%) were elected from British India and 104 (40%) were nominated by the Princely States.

b. Federal Assembly consisted of 375 members, of which 250 (67%) were elected by the legislative Assemblies and 125 (33%) nominated by the Rulers of the Princely States.

The Council was to be a permanent body 1/ 3^rd of its members were to retire after 3 years. The term of House of Assembly was 5 years. Indirect method of election was prevalent for the House of Assembly. There were Bi-cameral legislatures in Bengal, Bombay, Bihar and Madras and rest of the provinces had Unicameral legislatures.

5. Federal Court: It provided for the first time, the establishment of Federal Court of India in Delhi. It was established in 1937 and consisted of a Chief Justice and 6 additional Judges appointed by his Majesty’s Government on the basis of high legal qualifications.

• It had original jurisdiction to decide disputes between the Centre and the Provinces. 
• Appellate Jurisdiction over decisions of the High courts. 
• Advisory Jurisdiction to advice the Governor-General on any point of Law.

It was the highest court in India. The Federal court functioned in India for about 12 years, till its transformation into Supreme Court of India in 1950, under the present constitution. The credit for its excellent works goes to Sir Maurice Gwyer, who guided the court in its formative years as its first Chief Justice.

6. Provincial Autonomy: By this act, the provinces no longer remained as delegates of Central Government but became autonomous units of administration. The act introduced Provincial Autonomy. It was introduced in 11 provinces viz, Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, the North Western Frontier Province, Orissa, and Sind.

The provinces were administered by the ministers. The differences between the reserved and 0- transferred subjects were dropped. All subjects were placed under the charge of ministers who were made responsible and removable by the Legislative Assembly. Thus, the executive was responsible to legislature.

The legislative relations between the Central Government and the Provinces were regulated according to three lists of subjects provided under this Act.

a. However, ‘Dominion status’ which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929 was not conferred by this Act.

b. The intention to establish Federation of India did not materalize because opposition for the merger from the rulers of Princely states.

c. The degree of provincial autonomy introduced at the provincial level was limited as Central Government retained important powers and control. The Governor was given pivotal position, with discretionary powers on important matters. He was not bound by the advice of ministers. Thus, the claim of conferring provincial autonomy was very limited.

The reforms of 1919, failed to fulfill the aspirations of the people of India. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started agitation for ‘Swaraj’ to be attained through ‘Non-cooperation’.

As per the Government of India Act 1919, a statutory commission was to be appointed at the expiration of ten years after the passing of the Act for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the system and the development of representative institutions in India.

The British Government appointed a Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) in 1927, to enquire into the report of 1919 Act. This was done as a concession to the Indian demand for an early revision of the Act. The commission headed by Sir John Simon consisted of 7 members from the British Parliament. It did not have a single Indian as a member.

It was taken as an insult to the self-respect of India and hence was boycotted. Amidst protests of, “Simon, go back”, the commission visited India. It announced in 1929, that ‘Dominion status’ was the goal of Indian developments.

Gandhi lead the 1^st Round Table Conference held in 1930. Dr. Ambedkar lead the 2^nd in 1931 and again the 3^rd Round table Conference in 1932. The outcome of these conferences was announced in the form of ‘white paper’. 

It provided for:

1. Educational facilities and reservation in politics for depressed classes. 

2. Universal Adult Franchise. 

3. Prohibition of social boycott. 

4. Communal representation.

5. Separate electorate for the untouchables.

Simon commission brought the report of the resolutions of the conferences, but Gandhi opposed the separate electorate for untouchables and decided to fast unto death. Congress leaders met Gandhi in his regard, and he was convinced. The resolution was modified by providing reservations for depressed classes instead of separate electorate for the untouchables. This was popularly known as ‘Poona pact’ signed by Gandhi and Ambedkar.

A White paper was prepared on the results of these conferences. It was examined by the Joint select committee of the British Parliament and in accordance with its recommendations, the Government of India Act 1935 was passed. The act contained 321 Articles and 13 schedules. 

The important provisions of the Act are:

1. Federation: The Act provided for the establishment of ‘Federation of India’. It consisted of provinces of British India and the Princely states as units. For the first time, an attempt was made to establish a Federal Government.

2. Distribution of power: It divided legislative powers between the Central and Provincial legislatures. There was a threefold division.

a. Federal list: It consisted of 59 subjects like external affairs, currency, defense, etc., over which the federal legislature had legislative power.

b. Provincial list: It consisted of 54 subjects like police, education, etc., over which provincial legislatures had jurisdiction.

c. Concurrent list: This consisted of 36 subjects like criminal law, civil procedures, marriage, and divorce, etc., over which both the federal and provincial legislatures had competence.

d. The Residuary powers were vested with the Governor General.

3. Diarchy at the centre: The Diarchy which was established in the provinces by the Act of 1919 was now adopted at the centre. 

The executive authority vested with the Governor General included the following:

a. The administration of reserved subjects like defence, external affairs, etc. was done by Governor General with the help of ‘Councilors’, who were appointed by him and not responsible to the legislature.

b. In the matters of transferred subjects, Governor General acted, on the advice of ‘Council of Ministers’, who were responsible to the legislature.

4. The Federal Legislatures: The central legislature was bi-cameral consisting of Federal Assembly and the Council of States.

a. The Council of States consisted of 260 members, of which 156 (60%) were elected from British India and 104 (40%) were nominated by the Princely States.

b. Federal Assembly consisted of 375 members, of which 250 (67%) were elected by the legislative Assemblies and 125 (33%) nominated by the Rulers of the Princely States.

The Council was to be a permanent body. 1/ 3^rd of its members were to retire after 3 years. The term of House of Assembly was 5 years. Indirect method of election was prevalent for the House of Assembly. There were Bi-cameral legislatures in Bengal, Bombay, Bihar and Madras and rest of the provinces had Unicameral legislatures.

5. Federal Court: It provided for the first time, the establishment of Federal Court of India in Delhi. It was established in 1937 and consisted of a Chief Justice and 6 additional Judges appointed by his Majesty’s Government on the basis of high legal qualifications.

1. It had original jurisdiction to decide disputes between the Centre and the Provinces. 

2. Appellate Jurisdiction over decisions of the High courts. 

3. Advisory Jurisdiction to advice the Governor General on any point of Law.

It was the highest court in India. The Federal court functioned in India for about 12 years, till its transformation into Supreme Court of India in 1950, under the present constitution. The credit for its excellent works goes to Sir Maurice Gwyer, who guided the court in its formative years as its first Chief Justice.

6. Provincial Autonomy: By this act, the provinces no longer remained as delegates of Central Government but became autonomous units of administration. The act introduced Provincial Autonomy. It was introduced in 11 provinces viz, Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, the North Western Frontier Province, Orissa, and Sind.

The provinces were administered by the ministers. The differences between the reserved and transferred subjects were dropped. All subjects were placed under the charge of ministers who were made responsible and removable by the Legislative Assembly. Thus, the executive was responsible to legislature. The legislative relations between the Central Government and the Provinces were regulated according to three lists of subjects provided under this Act.

a. However, ‘Dominion status’ which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929 was not conferred by this Act.

b. The intention to establish Federation of India did not materalize because opposition for the merger from the rulers of Princely states.

c. The degree of provincial autonomy introduced at the provincial level was limited as Central Government retained important powers and control. The Governor was given pivotal position, with discretionary powers on important matters. He was not bound by the advice of ministers. Thus, the claim of conferring provincial autonomy was very limited.

The reforms of 1919, failed to fulfil the aspirations of the people of India. The Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi started agitation for ‘Swaraj’ to be attained through ‘Non-cooperation’.

As per the Government of India Act 1919, a statutory commission was to be appointed at the expiration of ten years after the passing of the Act for the purpose of inquiring into the working of the system and the development of representative institutions in India.

The British Government appointed a Statutory Commission (Simon Commission) in 1927, to enquire into the report of the 1919 Act. This was done as a concession to the Indian demand for an early revision of the Act. The commission headed by Sir John Simon consisted of 7 members from the British Parliament.

It did not have a single Indian as a member. It was taken as an insult to the self-respect of India and hence was boycotted. Amidst protests of, “Simon, go back”, the commission visited India. It announced in 1929, that ‘Dominion status’ was the goal of Indian developments.

Gandhi lead the 1^st Round Table Conference held in 1930. Dr. Ambedkar lead the 2^nd in 1931 and again the 3^rd Round table Conference in 1932. The outcome of these conferences was announced in the form of ‘white paper’. It provided for –

1. Educational facilities and reservation in politics for depressed classes. 

2. Universal Adult Franchise. 

3. Prohibition of social boycott. 

4. Communal representation.

5. Separate electorate for the untouchables. Simon commission brought the report of the resolutions of the conferences, but Gandhi opposed the separate electorate for untouchables and decided to fast unto death.

Congress leaders met Gandhi in his regard, and he was convinced. The resolution was modified by providing reservations for depressed classes instead of separate electorate for the untouchables. This was popularly known as ‘Poona pact’ signed by Gandhi and Ambedkar.

A White paper was prepared on the results of these conferences. It was examined by the Joint select committee of the British Parliament and in accordance with its recommendations, the Government of India Act 1935 was passed.

The act contained 321 Articles and 13 schedules. The important provisions of the Act are:

1. Federation: The Act provided for the establishment of ‘Federation of India’. It consisted of provinces of British India and the Princely states as units. For the first time, an attempt was made to establish a Federal Government.

2. Distribution of power: It divided legislative powers between the Central and Provincial legislatures. There was a threefold division.

a. Federal list: It consisted of 59 subjects like external affairs, currency, defense, etc., over which the federal legislature had legislative power.

b. Provincial list: It consisted of 54 subjects like police, education, etc., over which provincial legislatures had jurisdiction.

c. Concurrent list: This consisted of 36 subjects like criminal law, civil procedures, marriage, and divorce, etc., over which both the federal and provincial legislatures had competence.

d. The Residuary powers were vested with the Governor-General.

3. Diarchy at the centre: The Diarchy which was established in the provinces by the Act of 1919 was now adopted at the centre. The executive authority vested with the Governor-General included the following:

a. The administration of reserved subjects like defence, external affairs, etc. was done by Governor-General with the help of ‘Councilors’, who were appointed by him and not responsible to the legislature.

b. In the matters of transferred subjects, Governor-General acted, on the advice of ‘Council of Ministers’, who were responsible to the legislature.

4. The Federal Legislatures: The central legislature was bi-cameral consisting of Federal Assembly and the Council of States.

a. The Council of States consisted of 260 members, of which 156 (60%) were elected from British India and 104 (40%) were nominated by the Princely States.

b. Federal Assembly consisted of 375 members, of which 250 (67%) were elected by the legislative Assemblies and 125 (33%) nominated by the Rulers of the Princely States.

The Council was to be a permanent body 1/ 3^rd of its members were to retire after 3 years. The term of House of Assembly was 5 years. Indirect method of election was prevalent for the House of Assembly. There were Bi-cameral legislatures in Bengal, Bombay, Bihar and Madras and rest of the provinces had Unicameral legislatures.

5. Federal Court: It provided for the first time, the establishment of Federal Court of India in Delhi. It was established in 193 7 and consisted of a Chief Justice and 6 additional Judges appointed by his Majesty’s Government on the basis of high legal qualifications.

• It had original jurisdiction to decide disputes between the Centre and the Provinces. 
• Appellate Jurisdiction over decisions of the High courts. 
• Advisory Jurisdiction to advice the Governor-General on any point of Law.

It was the highest court in India. The Federal court functioned in India for about 12 years, till its transformation into Supreme Court of India in 1950, under the present constitution. The credit for its excellent works goes to Sir Maurice Gwyer, who guided the court in its formative years as its first Chief Justice.

6. Provincial Autonomy: By this act, the provinces no longer remained as delegates of Central Government but became autonomous units of administration. The act introduced Provincial Autonomy. It was introduced in 11 provinces viz, Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, the North Western Frontier Province, Orissa, and Sind.

The provinces were administered by the ministers. The differences between the reserved and 0- transferred subjects were dropped. All subjects were placed under the charge of ministers who were made responsible and removable by the Legislative Assembly. Thus, the executive was responsible to legislature.

The legislative relations between the Central Government and the Provinces were regulated according to three lists of subjects provided under this Act.

a. However, ‘Dominion status’ which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929 was not conferred by this Act.

b. The intention to establish Federation of India did not materalize because opposition for the merger from the rulers of Princely states.

c. The degree of provincial autonomy introduced at the provincial level was limited as Central Government retained important powers and control. The Governor was given pivotal position, with discretionary powers on important matters. He was not bound by the advice of ministers. Thus, the claim of conferring provincial autonomy was very limited.

The two conditions that are important for equilibrium:-

• The sum or resultant of all external forces acting on the body must be equal to zero.
• The sum or resultant of all external torques from external forces acting on the object must be zero.

India became a Sovereign Democratic Republic after the constitution was adopted on 26^th January 1950. General elections to the first Lok Sabha were held in India from October 1951 to February 1952, on the basis of. Universal Adult Franchise. With this India emerged as the world’s largest Democracy. The holding of General elections was a bold implementation of that faith in man and democracy. The first general elections was the most gigantic political experiment in the history of democracy. It was world’s largest free elections.

Political Implications:

1. National Human Rights Commission: The Commission came into existence on 8^th January 1994 consisting of a Chairman who is retired or sitting Chief Justice of India along with the members. The Commission has to prepare a list of human rights and get the approval by the government. Whenever a violation is committed, systematic inquiries are to be conducted and transparency should be maintained with the help of judiciary.

The commission has to enact new laws whenever the existing laws do not enact new laws when ever the existing laws do not cater to the needs of the inquiry. While doing so, it has to respect the prevailing international laws, contracts, and resolutions.

2. State Human Rights Commission: As per the Human Rights act of India, each state is authorized to establish a State Human Commission consisting of a Chairman who is retired or sitting Supreme Court judge or Chief Justice of High Court along with members. As per the direction of the Act,the Commission was set up in Karnataka in 2005 in the same model to that of national level.

3. Child rights: Violation of Human rights particularly on child rights are seen everywhere. The Deputy Commissioner is authorized to look into the details of exploitation on children. Measures are to be taken to register the complaints through ch i Id helpline in matters related to child labour, child abuse, encouraging begging and others.

4. Creating Awareness: Speedy disposal of the grievances registered in the commission at the different levels proves that people are definitely aware of the movements and its achievements. Human Rights Movements have gone a long way in providing peaceful and happy life by creating awareness and remedies for the grievances.

The Electronic Voting Machine(EVM) is one of the important innovations of modern technology. It has replaced the system of ballot box and ballot papers with most effective Electronic Voting Machine.

EVM consists of controlling Unit and Balloting Unit and both are interconnected with a cable. The balloting unit is kept in the place where voters exercise votes. The controlling unit is with the polling officer. After the voter proves his identity, by pressing the blue button on the balloting unit against the candidate’s symbol he casts his vote. With the beeping sound, the voting procedure will be completed.

Uses of EVM:

1. EVM can be easily operated and saves time. 

2. It is simple to operate by the voter to cast vote. 

3. Quick and accurate results. 

4. Economic and Eco-friendly.

5. Avoids invalid votes. 

6. Control of irregularities. 

7. NOTA option is provided

The Composition of the legislative council is as follows: 

• 1/3 – of the members are elected from the local bodies such as municipalities and district boards; 
• 1/3 – of the members are elected from members of the Legislative Assembly; 
• 1/12 – of the members are elected by the graduates from graduate constituencies.
• 1/12 – of the members are elected from teacher’s constituencies consisting of secondary- school, college and university- teachers; and 
• 1/6- of the members are nominated by the Governor from the fields of science, art, social service, the co-operative movement, literature, etc.

The functions of the Chief Minister is so powerful that he is referred to as “the first among equals” (Primus intersperes). Article 164 of the constitution states that “there shall be a Council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister for the state”.

The Chief Minister is elected from among the members of the majority party in Vidhana sabha. In case no party enjoys majority it is left to the discretion of the Governor to pick the Chief Minister, who in his opinion will prove majority in a stipulated time. Traditionally, the Chief Minister should be from the Vidhana Sabha.

1. Formation of Ministry: The primary task of the Chief Minister on assuming office is the formation of Council of ministers. Normally ministers are picked from the same political formation to ensure uniformity and continuity of policy. However nothing prevents the Chief Minister from picking anyone as minister from any party. The Chief Minister enjoys the authority to pick and choose his ministry because he is responsible for efficiency and performance of the government.

2. Allocation of Portfolios: After forming the ministry the next important task is allocation of responsibilities to ministers. Certain key or heavyweight portfolios such Home, Revenue, Finance, Industry, Public works are to be given to key and heavyweights who enjoy clout and following among party workers. Also to ensure efficiency and stability of the government. The Chief Minister enjoys the power of expanding and reforming the ministry.

3. Chairman of the Cabinet: The cabinet meetings are held under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister. The cabinet is a deliberating forum and differences may come up. It is the responsibility of the Chief Minister to mediate and soften things and arrive at decisions. The Chief Minister has the authority to decide the matters to be taken up by the cabinet and may accept or reject proposals.

Normally the proposals brought by ministers for discussion are not rejected. In the era of coalition politics, it is a challenge for the Chief Minister to hold the flock together. It is very difficult to chair a cabinet meeting full of divergent views, ideologies, and principles. 

4. Leader of Vidhana Sabha: Chief Minister is the leader of Vidhana sabha. All major decisions and announcements of the state government are made by the Chief Minister. It is the responsibility of the Chief Minister to ensure that all bills brought before Vidhana sabha for approval are passed.

And he has to defend the government on the floor of the house. Though ministers are individually responsible to their ministries, it is the Chief minister who provides general leadership and direction. If any minister makes a mistake, the Chief Minister has the power to guide and correct him.

5. Leader of the Government: The decisions of the government however good, are subjected to scrutiny and criticism. The opposition parties lose their identity if they do not criticize the government. So to guard against it, the Chief Minister, as leader of the government has to defend policies and programmes of the government both in and out of legislature.

6. Co-ordination and Supervision: In running the administrative machinery Chief Minister will have to encounter numerous problems ranging from routine to serious. Under the circumstances, it is essential to integrate different departments and see that they work smoothly and the ability of the Chief Minister is tested on this count.

A Chief Minister should not only pick a team but also retain it as a team till the end of the term. Whenever problems arise between departments, he has to mediate and sort it out amicably through dialogue and goodwill. The Chief Minister is the general head of the government. Hence he has the responsibility of supervising the administration.

Though each minister is in charge of a ministry, lack of general supervision results in poor administrative quality. To maintain quality in administration, the Chief Minister will have to supervise it, not only gives him a general feel of the administration but also makes the ministers more responsible. The Chief Minister may correct the working of a particular ministry and offer suggestions.

7. Bridge between the Governor and the State Legislature: The Chief Minister acts as a link between the Governor and state legislature in a parliamentary government. As all executive powers are vested in the hands of the Crovemor, the Chief Minister is duty-bound to keep the Governor informed about the decisions taken by the government.

Also, the Governor himself can call for any information from the government. The Chief Minister not only acts as a bridge but also as the advisor to the President. Whenever necessary the President will look forward for advice. For example, the Governor seeks the advice L of the Chief Minister before dissolving Vidhana sabha.

8. Power of Dissolution: The Vidhana sabha exists as long as the Chief Minister wishes because even before the expiry of 5 years term, Chief Minister may seek the dissolution of Vidhana sabha. The Vidhana sabha may be dissolved if deep differences surfaced within the government or within the ruling party or the government loses a motion of no confidence.

9. Power of Appointment: Though civil appointments are made by the Governor, it is based on recommendation of the Chief Minister.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the chairman of the drafting committee.

Human Rights are those rights which are inherent to the Human beings and which they are entitled to enjoy without distinction of race, colour, religion, language, gender, birthplace, social, economic, political and other status.

The rights relating to life, liberty, equality, and dignity of the individuals guaranteed under the Constitution or embodied in the international convenants and enforceable by courts.

But violations of human rights in many of the countries have led a international orgnaisations to take measure to protect them at global level. Hence Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was accepted on 10^th December 1948 by the U.N. through its resolutions. The basic purpose behind this is general interest.

The practice of Natural rights encompasses political, economic, social justices, freedom of speech, equality, respect to all, right against exploitation, right against gender-based inequality, religious faith without interference.

The violation of human rights is multifarious. They are:

1. To protect civil liberty: All men born equally and they have the libery to shape their lives. Constitution of India guaranteed these rights in the part III to citizens. But in actual practice dalits, women and children are being supressed and exploited.

2. To remove slavery: It is constitutionally banned. But it is active in many parts of the country. Hence agitations become inevitable.

3. To protect family: Every citizen has the right to family life. Due to modernisation, youth are heading towards inter-caste and inter-religious marriages. Dowry harassments end up in either suicide or murder.

4. To protect the rights of dalits: Injustice, attrocities, social ostracism, Made-snana, dalits being forced to carry night soil by upper caste people, etc are clear violations of human rights.

5. Refusal to file cases: Though the aggrieved dalits approach the authorities to file the cases against upper caste people, it does not get filed due to the interference of some politically dominant castes. Even when physically abused, medical aid and police protection are denied.

Political Implications:

1. National Human Rights Commission: The Commission came into existence on 8th January 1994 consisting of a Chairman who is retired or sitting Chief Justice of India along with the members. The Commission has to prepare a list of human rights and get the approval by the government.

Whenever a violation is committed, systematic enquiries are to be conducted and transparency should be maintained with the help of judiciary. The commission has to enact new laws whenever the existing laws do not cater to the needs of the inquiry. While doing so, it has to respect the prevailing international laws, contracts, and resolutions.

2. State Human Rights Commission: As per the Human Rights act of India, each state is authorized to establish a State Human Commission consisting of a Chairman who is retired or sitting Supreme Court judge or Chief Justice of High Court along with memebrs. As per the direction of the Act, the Commission was set up in Karnataka in 2005 in the same model to that of national level.

3. Child rights: Violation of Human rights particularly on child rights are seen everywhere. The Deputy Commissioner is authorized to look into the details of exploitation on children. Measures are to be taken to register the complaints through child helpline in matters related to child labour, child abuse, encouraging begging and others.

4. Creating Awareness: Speedy disposal of the grievances registered in the commission at the different levels prove that people are definitely aware of the movements and its achievements. Human Right Movements have gone a long way in providing peaceful and happy life by creating awareness and remedies for the grievances.

Powers and functions of the president of India are as follows: 

a. In the Parliamentary government, the position of the President is that of a respectful figurehead, representing the honor and dignity of the people of India. It has become a fashion to label the President as ‘a rubber stamp’, the impression is that he does nothing but signing bills brought before him. But there are occasions that offer scope for independent decisions.

b. When no party enjoys a majority, the power to appoint prime minister rests with the President (Ar- tide 75). In case of sudden demise of Prime minister, if the party fails to elect its leader, at the earliest, President may appoint a person of his choice as the Prime minister. Importantly, if a government loses majority and recommends for the dissolution of the house (Lok Sabha), it is purely power of the President to dissolve the parliament or not (Article 85).

The powers and functions of the President are as follows: 

1. Legislative Functions:

The legislative functions are detailed below: 

1. To summon, prorogue and dissolve the Parliament.

2. The President enjoys the power to address the Parliament. It is normally done after general elections or the first session of the year. It is generally called Presidential speech. This inaugural speech outlines the objectives and priorities of the goverment.

3. In passing the bills, if a dead lock arises due to non-agreement between two houses of the parliament, the President may call for joint session of both the houses. 

4. The President may address Lok sabha or Rajya sabha or both any time and also may send a message to both the houses of parliament to look into a bill. 

5. In the considered view of the President, if he is satisfied that the Anglo-Indian com-munity is not adequately represented, he may nominate 12 members to Rajya Sabha and 2 members to Lok sabha. 

6. Prior permission of the President is essential while dealing with bills relating to for- mation of new states, alteration of boundaries and some special bills like the finance bills.

7. No bill can become a law without the assent of the President. He enjoys the power to withhold a bill. This power is called ‘Veto power’. However he cannot refuse his assent for finance bills. But he can withhold assent for a non money bill. But if the same is resubmitted for signature even without changes, he cannot refuse to sign it.

8. The President enjoys the power of issuing Ordinance when the parliament is not in session. It will have the same power and effect similar to that of a law made by the Parliament provided the same is ratified by the Parliament within 6 weeks of its passage. Otherwise it ceases to be a law and is considered null and void or zero.

The Composition of the legislative council is as follows:

• 1/3 – of the members are elected from the local bodies such as municipalities and district boards; 
• 1/3 – of the members are elected from members of Legislative Assembly; 
• 1/12 – of the members are elected by the graduates from graduate constituencies. 
• 1/12 – of the members are elected from teacher’s constituencies consisting of secondary- school, college and university- teachers and 
• 1/6- of the members are nominated by’ the Governor from the fields of science, art, social service, co-operative movement, literature, etc

The drafting committee of the Indian constitution has been formed on 29th August 1947 and B.R. Ambedkar was elected as a chairman. The main responsibility that entrusted to the drafting committee to draft the new constitution. It consists of 7 members called B.R. Ambedkar, chairman, B.L. Mitter, N: Gopalaswamy Ayvangar, Alladi KrishswamyAyyar, Dr. K.M Munshi, Saiyid Mohd Saadullah, D.R Khaitan.

The drafting committee prepared the first draft which was published in February 1948. It prepared a second draft which was published in October 1948 and completed its work in 141 days. On 29^th November 1949, the constituent assembly accepts and enacted the Indian constitution.

a. Right to Vote: All the citizens who have attained the age of 18 are eligible to vote through adult franchise without any discrimination.

b. Right to contest election: All the citizens of a country who have attained a particular age are given the chance to contest elections and thus respect the aims and aspirations of various sections of society in government.

c. Right to Enter Government Service: In a democracy, all the citizens are equally entitled to get a government jobs on the basis of their qualifications.

d. Right to petition: It gives an opportunity to ail people to bring their problems to the notice of government and seek remedies.

e. Right to Criticism: It is one of the biggest boons of democracy. All citizens have right to. criticise the policies of the government.

The preamble of the constitution of India explains the aims and ideology and reads as:

WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, DEMOCRATIC, SOCIALIST, SECULAR and REPUBLIC Nation and securing to all its citizens.

• JUSTICE- social, economic and political. 
• LIBERTY- of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship. 
• EQUALITY- of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all. 
• FRATERNITY- assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and the integrity of the Nation.

The idea of the preamble has been borrowed from constitution of U.S.A.

The preamble of the constitution of India explains the aims and ideology and reads as: WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, DEMOCRATIC, SOCIALIST, SECULAR and REPUBLIC Nation and securing to all its citizens.

• JUSTICE – social, economic and political. 
• LIBERTY – of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship. 
• EQUALITY – of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all. 
• FRATERNITY – assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and the integrity of the Nation.

The idea of the preamble has been borrowed from constitution of U.S.A.

In federal representation the state is important. In India, the members of the Rajyasabha are indirectly elected for 6 yrs but in of them will retire every 2 yrs.

The Rajyasabha has 250 members out of whom 12 are nominated by the president for their contributions to science, literature, art and social service. The remaining 238 members are indirectly elected by the state legislative assemblies through a system of proportional representation.

This is the Indian political concept regarding freedom. ‘Swa’ means self and ‘raj’ meaning rule. Swaraj is a combination of these two words. It means self-rule. However, Gandhiji’s concept of Swaraj had its own meaning. In his book ‘Hind Swaraj’ (1909), he has explained his concept of Swaraj. Gandhiji believed that swaraj means selfcontrol. It is only when we learn to rule ourselves there will be Swaraj. 

Swaraj is not mere freedom. It is the freedom to reclaim from institutions that destroy human virtues, a person’s selfesteem, his sense of responsibility and to ensure his fulfillment. Gandhiji believed that in the attainment of Swaraj a person’s individuality and its relations with the community and society play a crucial role.

'Harm principle' is introduce  by John Sturat MIll.

• Political equality is the basis of democracy and economic equality implies equal distribution of income and 
• wealth without producing minimum standard of living to the mass, people cannot think of political equality.

Features of Unitary Government: 

1. Concentration of Power: A Unitary government is characterized by the presence of a ’ single centre, which is omnipotent and omnipresent all over the territory. All decisions of the state flow from one single centre.

2. No Provincial Autonomy: The provinces or local units in a unitary system are created by the centre for the sake of administrative convenience. It carries out the orders of the centre without having any powers to make decisions. Thus, the local units only act as subordinate agents of the centre without any authority or autonomy.

3. Single legislature: In a unitary system of government there will be only one single supreme legislative assembly which makes laws for the whole country and are faithfully implemented by the local units. 

4. Constitution may be written or unwritten: The constitution, in a unitary government, may be written or unwritten as there is one single central authority wielding power all over the state without any other centres of power.

The preamble of the constitution of India explains the aims and ideology and reads as:

WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN, DEMOCRATIC, SOCIALIST, SECULAR and REPUBLIC Nation and securing to all its citizens.

• JUSTICE -social, economic and political. 
• LIBERTY- of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship, 
• EQUALITY- of status and of opportunity and to promote among them all. 
• FRATERNITY- assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and the integrity of The idea of the preamble has been borrowed from constitution of U.S.A. 

a. Democracy 

b. Written down Fundamental Rights 

c. Independent Judiciary 

d. Rule of Law 

e. Economic Equality 

f. Decentralization of Power 

g. Independent and Truthful Media

h. Party System 

i. Political Education 

j. Right to Equality 

k. Constant Vigilance

Some of the steps taken to ensure independence of judiciary are as follows:

1. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive and Legislature:

Judiciary in India is neither a branch of the executive nor a hand-maid of the legislature. It has an independent identity under the Constitution. It enjoys full autonomy in its working.

2. Appointment of Judges by the President:

The method of appointment of judges has been very sound. The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President. While appointing other judges the Supreme Court, the President consults the Chief Justice of India. In case of the appointment of the Chief Justice, the practice of appointing the senior most judges to this high office is followed. In the case of subordinate courts, the Judges are recruited through competitive examinations.

3. High Qualifications:

The Constitution prescribes specific and high qualifications for the Judges. A person eligible for judgeship has to be an Indian citizen, must have experience as a Judge of a High Court for at least five years or as an advocate of High Court for at least ten years or be a distinguished jurist. Thus, only persons with high qualifications and experience are appointed as judges of the courts.

4. Long Tenure:

Judges of Supreme Court remain in office till they attain the age of 65 years. This age limit ensures a long tenure for the Judges.

5. Security of Service:

The Judges in India enjoy good security of service. No judge can be removed from the office except by a very difficult process of impeachment.

6. High Salary:

Every Judge of the Supreme Court gets a high salary. Besides this, each judge is entitled to free residential accommodation, medical allowance and several other perks. Salaries and allowances of judges cannot be reduced during their terms of office, except in the situation of a financial emergency in the country.

7. Prohibition of Practice after Retirement:

A Judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited to practice before any court or authority in India.

8. Power to Punish the Contempt of Court:

Courts in India have been given the power to punish all cases involving a contempt of court. The Supreme Court can punish any institution or person who is found guilty of contempt of court.

9. Vast Jurisdiction and the Power of Judicial Review:

Judiciary in India enjoys a vast jurisdiction. It acts as the guardian interpreter of the Constitution, the protector of Fundamental Rights of the people and the arbiter of disputes between the Union and the States. It has the power to determine the constitutional validity of every law.

It can reject any law in case it is found to be against the Constitution of India. Indian Judiciary is in no way subordinate to the other two organs of the government. Its decisions bind all. Such a powerful position helps the judiciary to maintain its independence. Thus the Constitution of India incorporates all such features as are considered essential for the preservation of independence of Judiciary.

Some of the steps taken to ensure independence of judiciary are as follows:

1. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive and Legislature:

Judiciary in India is neither a branch of the executive nor a hand-maid of the legislature. It has an independent identity under the Constitution. It enjoys full autonomy in its working.

2. Appointment of Judges by the President:

The method of appointment of judges has been very sound. The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President. While appointing other judges the Supreme Court, the President consults the Chief Justice of India. In case of the appointment of the Chief Justice, the practice of appointing the senior most judges to this high office is followed. In the case of subordinate courts, the Judges are recruited through competitive examinations.

3. High Qualifications:

The Constitution prescribes specific and high qualifications for the Judges. A person eligible for judgeship has to be an Indian citizen, must have experience as a Judge of a High Court for at least five years or as an advocate of High Court for at least ten years or be a distinguished jurist. Thus, only persons with high qualifications and experience are appointed as judges of the courts.

4. Long Tenure:

Judges of Supreme Court remain in office till they attain the age of 65 years. This age limit ensures a long tenure for the Judges.

5. Security of Service:

The Judges in India enjoy good security of service. No judge can be removed from the office except by a very difficult process of impeachment.

6. High Salary:

Every Judge of the Supreme Court gets a high salary. Besides this, each judge is entitled to free residential accommodation, medical allowance and several other perks. Salaries and allowances of judges cannot be reduced during their terms of office, except in the situation of a financial emergency in the country.

7. Prohibition of Practice after Retirement:

A Judge of the Supreme Court is prohibited to practice before any court or authority in India.

8. Power to Punish the Contempt of Court:

Courts in India have been given the power to punish all cases involving a contempt of court. The Supreme Court can punish any institution or person who is found guilty of contempt of court.

9. Vast Jurisdiction and the Power of Judicial Review:

Judiciary in India enjoys a vast jurisdiction. It acts as the guardian interpreter of the Constitution, the protector of Fundamental Rights of the people and the arbiter of disputes between the Union and the States. It has the power to determine the constitutional validity of every law.

It can reject any law in case it is found to be against the Constitution of India. Indian Judiciary is in no way subordinate to the other two organs of the government. Its decisions bind all. Such a powerful position helps the judiciary to maintain its independence. Thus the Constitution of India incorporates all such features as are considered essential for the preservation of independence of Judiciary.

agree. Liberty is not licensed to do anything one likes without any sort of control. Man is a social creature. When living in a society, some controls are necessary.

The state is politically organised people in a definite territory. According to Woodrow Wison, the state is people organised for law within a definite territory.

Features of Unitary Government: 

1. Concentration of Power: A Unitary government is characterized by the presence of a 1 single-center, Which is omnipotent and omnipresent all over the territory. All decisions of the state flow from one single center. 

2. No Provincial Autonomy: The provinces or local units in a unitary system are created by the centre for the sake of administrative convenience. It carries out the orders of the center without having any powers to make decisions. Thus, the local units only act as subordinate agents of the center without any authority or autonomy.

3. Single legislature: In a Unitary system of government there will be only one single supreme legislative assembly which makes laws for the whole country and are faithfully implemented by the local units.

4. Constitution may be written or unwritten: The constitution, in a unitary government, may be written or unwritten as there is one single central authority wielding power all over the state without any other centres of power.

1. State is absolute 

2. Force and fear.

1. Habeas corpus: It is an order issued by the court to produce the person who has wrongly detained within 24 hours.

2. Mandamus: It is a command issued by the court to ask the government official for performing his duties. 

3. Prohibition: It is issued by a higher court to lower court to prevent their exceeding jurisdiction. 

4. Certiorari: It is issued by a higher court to lower court to transfer a case pending with the later in a case.

5. Quo – warranto: It is issued by a court to enquire into the legality of claim of a person to public office.

1. National Liberty: It is associated with french thinker J.J. Rousseau. Access to this type of men in the state of nature were completely free and there were no restrictions. This doesn’t exist in modem social life.

2. Civil liberty: It is enjoyed by all the individuals in society. It consists of certain rights and privileges created and protected by the state.

3. Political Liberty: This liberty is available only to the citizen either directly or indirectly participate in the political activities of the state. In short, a person makes or destroys the government.

4. Economic Liberty Without economic liberty, other liberty, other liberties are meaningless and useless. It means liberty of security and opportunities to find reasonable significance in the livelihood

5. National Liberty : This liberty implies the political independence of the state. All other liberties can’t be enjoyed unless the country is independent.

Dictatorship is a form of government where all the powers of the state are concentrated in one man or in one party or in one group. Dictatorship is classified as traditional and modem, old and new, leftisit fascist, communist, and military. The old type of dictorship existed in ancient Greece and Rome; they are temporary and appointed during crisis. Modem dictatorship is of new type and permanent.

Modem dictatorship has taken three forms: 

• Fascist or Nazi dictatorship as it existed in Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal. 
• Party Dictatorship as was found in U.S.S.R. and found at present in china 
• Military Dictatorships as found in Pakistan and some African and Latin American countries.

The presiding officer of Loksabha is the Speaker who is elected from among the members along with the Deputy Speaker and stays in office till the life of the House i.e., 5 years. His primary task is to protect the dignity and decorum of the House and to see that the proceedings of the House are conducted in an orderly and a focused manner. He is the principal spokesperson of the House and must be impartial and even-handed in dealing as the custodian of the House.

In order to ensure impartiality, the speaker resigns his party membership in the election. The Deputy speaker discharges the duty even the office of the speaker falls vacant due to resignation, death or removal by a 2/3 majority of the total membership of the House or in the absence of the speaker. The salary of the speaker is determined by the parliament from time to time. The Speaker’s position in the House is one of dignity and authority.

• All orders of the house are executed through the Speaker 
• Communication from the President is made known through the Speaker. 
• It is the power of the speaker to declare whether a bill is a money bill or not. 
• He enjoys the authority of interpreting the Rules of procedure and has the power to vote except in case of a tie. 
• No member can speak in the House without the permission of the speaker and it is the speaker who fixes the time limit for speech. 
• He presides over the Joint sittings of the parliament. 
• During discussions, the members must address the Chair.
• In case of a tie, the speaker has the right to cast a vote. 
• Speaker’s decisions cannot be questioned in a court of law.

1. National Liberty: It is associated with french thinker J.J. Rousseau. Access to this type men in the state of nature were completely free and there were no restrictions. This doesn’t exist in modem social life.

2. Civil liberty: It is enjoyed by all the individuals in the society. It consists of certain rights ‘ and privileges created and protected by the state.

3. Political Liberty: This liberty is available only to the citizen either directly or indirectly participate in the political activities of the state. In short, a person makes or destroys the government.

4. Economic Liberty: Without economic liberty, other liberty, other liberty are meaningless and useless. It means liberty of security and opportunities to find reasonable significance in the livelihood. 

5. National Liberty: This liberty implies the political independence of the state. All other liberties can’t be enjoyed unless the country is indepent.

Unitary government 

1. The authority of central government is supreme and all the organs of government are integral parts of one single administrative machinery. 

2. Units are the creation of central government. The powers given to them can be increased or decreased or canceled. , 

3. Single citizenship right prevails. 

Federal government: 

1. The powers of nation be divided between central and state governments. These are two administrative machinaries. 

2. The powers are divided and distributed to the state and central government by constitution. 

3. Dual citizenship right enjoyed by citizen.

The members of Lok Sabha are elected by the people. All adult citizens unless disqualified for other reasons have the right to select their representatives. Qualifications to become the members are must be a citizen of the country and must have attained the minimum age fixed by the constitution. The term of office is five years. Speaker is the presiding officer. He is elected from among the members of the house. 

1. Legislative functions: The power of Loksabha extends to all subjects falling under the Union List and the Concurrent list. In case of emergency in operation its power also extends to State list as well. No bill can become a law without the consent of Loksabha. The Loksabha has equal powers of law making with Rajyasabha except on financial ‘ matters where the supremacy of Loksabha is total.

In case of disagreement between the two houses on a matter of legislation, it is resolved by a Joint Sitting of both the houses presided over by the Speaker. In a Joint Sitting, Loksabha would emerge triumphant because tire decisions are taken by a majority of the total number of members of both the house present and voting in which the numerical superiority of Loksabha prevails.

2. Financial functions: On financial matters, the supremacy of the Loksabha is total and complete. “One, who holds purse, holds power,” said James Madison. By establishing its authority over the national purse, Loksabha establishes its authority over the Rajyasabha.

It is expressly stated that Money bill can originate only in the house of people. Regarding budget, Loksabha being a representative house enjoys total authority. Loksabha’s position on financial matters is such that the demands for grants are placed only before the Loksabha.

3. Control over the executive: The Loksabha enjoys direct control over the executive because executive is directly responsible to the lower house and stays in office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the house. The Loksabha not only makes laws but also supervises the implementation. The lower house being a debating house, the members are free to seek information from the executive and raise questions and seek clarifications.

The members can effectively seek information from the government by way of discussions and debates during the Question Hour (seek clarification), the Adjournment Motion (raises issues of national importance), the Zero Hour, the Cu motion, the Call-attention motion, etc. The soundest way of controlling the executive is by way of moving the No-confidence motion, if the executive fails to win the support of Lok sabha, they must step down.

4. Constituent functions: The Loksabha shares equal powers in regard to amending provisions of the constitution. An amendment may be initiated either in the Rajyasabha or Loksabha and must be passed by a 2/3 majority in both the houses present and voting. The agreement of Rajyasabha is compulsory for the success of constitutional amendment.

5. Electoral functions: ]The Loksabha and Rajyasabha elect the highest constitutionalfunctionaries such as the President and the Vice-president. The President is elected by the members of Loksabha and Rajyasabha along with the members of Legislative Assemblies of the states. The Vice-president is elected by members of Loksabha and Rajyasabha.

6. Judicial functions: The Loksabha acts as a judge in the impeachment of the President. Either house can prefer the charge of impeachment. If Rajyasabha prefers the charge, Loksabha investigates the charge and if it passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority of the total membership of the house. President stands impeached from the office.

The Loksabha also sits in Judgement, along with the Rajyasabha, in removing high constitutional functionaries such as the Comptroller and Auditor General, The Chief Vigilance Commissioner, the Chief Election Commissioner, etc.

In Presidential government, the Executive is not responsible to the legislature. It is based on the principle of ‘ Separation of powers’. It is known as non-responsible system or fixed executive system.

E.g: USA. 

Features of presidential government.

1. Separation of powers: The Presidential government is based on Montesquieu concept of “separation of powers”. The concept of separation powers contend that the legislature, executive and judiciary must be independent of each other and function independently. Legislature performs the task of law making, executive law implementation and judiciary interpretation of laws’.

2. Checks and Balances: Presidential government is based on checks and balances. Though the legislature, executive and judiciary function independently, complete separation is not only desirable but also impractical. To maintain the exercise of power balanced, controlled and wide spread each organ is given a fair degree of power in one another’s functional area. 

3. Executive is not responsible to legislature: The president in U.S.A is directly elected by the people and hence is not responsible to legislature. The president can’t participate in the proceedings of the congress. He can neitherinitiate a bill nor pilots it. The President is not accountable to anyone but the constitution and the people.

4. Real Executive: In presidential government, the president is directly elected by the people. The president is not only the real executive but also the head of government. He is directly responsible for all happenings in the country.

5. Secretaries directly responsible to president: The secretaries known as presidents’ ‘Brain Trust’ are appointed by the president and stay in office as long as they enjoy the confidence of the president. The President may remove any secretary without assigning any reason. Secretaries are neither responsible to congress nor to the people but to the president. The President can hire or fire secretaries.

6. Fixed Tenure: The President does not depend on Congress for his survival. He is directly elected for a period of 4 years and lasts his full term. He cannot be removed from office except on grounds of inefficiency and proven misbehavior through an impeachment motion.

The local self-governing institution for a town with a population of twelve thousand and above is known as Municipal Committee.