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Perestroika means restructuring and Glasnost means openness. It was introduced by the then President of USSR Mikhail Gorbachev.

• India 
• Srilanka.

The first summit of NAM was held at Belgrade, Yugoslavia in 1961.’

• Objective of the Zionist movement was to form a nation for the Jews.
• The objective of the PLO was to establish a nation for the people of Palestine. 

1. Ignores the interests of East Pakistan. 

2. Not allow Mujibur Rehman to become Prime Minister.

With the beginning of cold war, two power blocs have emerged, i.e., USA for spreading Democracy and the Soviet Union for spreading Communism.

Jawaharlal Nehru laid down the policy of Integration to five principles (1957) in his foreword note to Verrier Elwin’s book, called “The Philosophy of NEFA” (NEFA – North East Frontier of Assam). 

The tribal panchasheela as enunciated by him as follows:

1. People should ‘develop along the lines of their own genius‘ and we should avoid imposing anything on them. We should try to encourage in every way their own traditional – arts and culture. 

2. Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected. 

3. We should try to train and build up a team of their own people to work, administration and development. Some technical personnel from outside will, no doubt be needed especially in the beginning. But we should avoid introducing too many outsiders into tribal territory.

4. We should not over-administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes. We should rather work through and not in rivalry to their own social and cultural institutions. 

5. We should judge the results not by statistics or the amount of money spent but by the quality of human character that is evolved.

The communal clashes in Tripura. Millions of refugees fled to India which caused uneasy law and order situation upsetting Indian economy and social peace.

Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon dealt with matters arising between Central Government and Indian states, during the process of integration. Patel handled the princes with patience, tact, sympathy and an iron hand. The process of integration was threefold and known as the ‘Patel Scheme’.

1. Merger of small states with adjoining provinces: About 216 states were merged with provinces adjoining them, e.g: Merger of 24 states of Orissa, 14 states of Central Province, Pudukottai with Madras, etc. These merged states were included in part B of the Constitution.

2. Grouping of small states: Many small states grouped themselves to form a big state with the ruler of the most important becoming the Rajpramukhs e.g.: Union of Saurashtra, Patiala, and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), etc. These unions were called part B states.

3. Integration into Chief Commiss- oner’s Provinces: About 61 states which were quite small and backward were converted into centrally administered areas as Chief Commissioner’s Provinces and were called Part-C States, e.g.: Himachal Pradesh, Ajmer, Coorg, Cooch-Bihar, etc.

Bharatha Khanda.

India is a Union of States and hence it provides for division of powers. Subjects mentioned in the union list are to be managed by a separate body of officials under central services. Art. 312 of the Constitution empowers the Parliament to create Central Services.

The officials appointed to these services come under the exclusive control of the Central Government. The Central Services are classified into Class-I, Class-II, Class-Ill and ClassIV:

Some of the Central Services are:

1. Indian Foreign Services. 

2. Indian Audit & Accounts Sendees. 

3. Indian Revenue Services. 

4. Indian Railway Services 

5. Indian Defence Services 

6. Indian Information Services 

7. Indian Postal Services 

8. Indian Engineering Services 

9. Indian Economic Services.

Provisions: 

1. The Act Provided that on 15^th August 1947, the appointed date, two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, would be set up and the Act provided for complete transfer of power.

2. The dominion of India got the territories of Bombay, Madras, UP, Central Provinces, Bihar, Assam, Delhi, Ajmer, Coorg, etc., and the rest of India except Sindh, Baluchistan, West Punjab, East Bengal, North West Frontier Province and Sylhet in Assam, which became the territories of Pakistan. For demarcating the boundaries, a Boundary Commission was formed with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as the Chairman.

3. The Crown was no longer the source of authority.

4. The Governor General and provisional Governors were to act as constitutional heads. They lost extra-ordinary powers to legislate.

5. The office of the Secretary of State was abolished.

6. From 15^th August 1947, the British Crown lost all rights of Paramountcy over India and the Indian states were free to join either Indian Union or Pakistan.

7. The power in each dominion was transferred to the Constituent Assembly which became fully sovereign from 15^th August 1947 and was absolutely free to frame the constitution. The Constituent Assemblies had a dual role i.e. Constituent and Legislative. They functioned as Central Legislature, till the new Legislatures were formed. 

8. Until the new Constitution was framed, the Act of 1935 would govern the Centre and the Provinces with necessary modifications.

NATO and WARSA.

became a Sovereign Democratic Republic after the constitution was adopted on 26^th January 1950. General elections to the first Lok Sabha were held in India from October 1951 to February 1952, on the basis of Universal Adult Franchise. With this, India emerged as the world’s largest Democracy.

The holding of General elections was a bold implementation of that faith in man and democracy. The first general elections was the most gigantic political experiment in the history of democracy. It was world’s largest free election.

Features of Indirect Elections are:

1. Selection of best candidates: In this method, candidates are elected by intelligent voters. At the first instance General public elect their representatives to the electoral college and at the second instance the elected representatives in turn judiciously elect the final representatives of legislature or head of the nation. This method involves double election. Elected representatives act wisely with political acumen.

2. Prevents unhealthy campaigning: It avoids all sorts of evils like dirty propaganda tricks and instigation of people lover petty issues to divide them. For example in the election of the President of India, the average voters are kept outside but only elected members of both the Houses of the Parliament participate. These intelligent and responsible members keep away from all sorts of party gimmicks.

3. Peaceful voting: In this method, there is no scope for illegal activities or fights during the election as it happens in the direct election. In the electoral process only small members of enlightened voters peacefully exercise their votes judiciously. The elections are conducted according to well defined norms and values.

4. Little scope for emotions: Elected representatives are not carried away by passions or sentiments nor can be influenced like an average voter. There is no chance for misusing sensitive issues for political gains. The higher level leaders are elected by people’s representatives who act with a sense of responsibility.

5. Suitable to developing nations: Since majority of the voters are ignorant, not educated and intelligent, only a small group of politically educated and wise voters elect responsible and public spirited representatives.

940 females per 1000 males.

1. The Act Provided that on 15^th August 1947, the appointed date, two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, would be set up and the Act provided for complete transfer of power.

2. The dominion of India got the territories of Bombay, Madras, UP, Central Provinces, Bihar, Assam, Delhi, Ajmer, Coorg etc., and the rest of India except Sindh, Baluchistan, West Punjab, East Bengal, North West Frontier Province and Sylhet in Assam, which became the territories of Pakistan. For demarcating the boundaries, a Boundary Commission was formed with Sir Cyril Radcliffe as the Chairman.

3. The Crown was no longer the source of authority.

4. The Governor General and provisional Governors were to act as constitutional heads. They lost extra-ordinary powers to legislate.

5. The office of the Secretary of State was abolished.

6. From 15^th August 1947, the British Crown lost all rights of Paramountcy over India and the Indian states were free to join either Indian Union or Pakistan.

7. The power in each dominion was transferred to the Constituent Assembly which became fully sovereign from 15^th August 1947 and were absolutely free to frame the constitution. The Constituent Assemblies had a dual role i.e. Constituent and Legislative. They functioned as Central Legislature, till the new Legislatures were formed.

8. Until the new Constitution was framed, the Act of 1935 would govern the Centre and the Provinces with necessary modifications.

Mandal Commission.

Simla Pact was signed in 1972 at Simla. The signatories of this pact (agreement) were Smt. Indira Gandhi – Indian Prime Minister and Pakistan Prime Minister, Z.A. Bhutto.

A market is one of the social institutions, whereby parties engage in an exchange of goods and services. Markets rely on sellers offering their goods or services in exchange for money from buyers. It can be said that a market is the proces by which the prices of goods and services are established.

In the field of Sociology, the concept of a market is a structure that allows buyers and sellers to exchange any type of goods, services and information. The exchange of goods or services for money is a Transaction.

Features of Market: The features of Market are as follow: 

1. Market is a place where things are bought and sold: In common usage, the word ‘market’ may refer to particular markets that we may know of, such as the market next to the railway station, the fruit market, or the wholesale market.

2. Market is not just a physical place, but the gathering of people — buyers and sellers: Thus, for example, a weekly market may be found in different places on different days of the week in neighboring villages or urban neighborhoods.

3. Market is a type of trade or business: Market refers to an area or category of trade or business, such as the market for cars or the market for ready made clothes.

4. Market includes the entire spectrum of economic activities and institutions: In this very broad sense, then, ‘the market’ is almost equivalent to ‘the economy’. We are used to thinking of the market as an economic institution, but the market is also a social institution. In its own way, the market is comparable to more obviously social institutions like caste, religion or family.

The correct answer is Covenant.

Covenant:

• A pledge made by individual people, groups or countries to follow a principle or rule, which is legally binding on the signatories of an agreement or statement.
• Example:
  • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is an international covenant on human rights.

• Treaty:
  • A binding formal agreement, contract, or other written instrument that establishes obligations between two or more subjects of international law.
  • The term treaty is used to describe a variety of instruments including conventions, agreements, arrangements, protocols, covenants, charters, and acts.
• Agreement:
  • A promise/commitment or a series of reciprocal promises constitutes consideration for the parties to contract.
  • In an agreement, one person offers or proposes something to another person, who in turn accepts the same.

Mass Media is divided into two major types which are:

1. Print Media: Newspaper and magazines 

2. Electronic Media: Radio, Television, Internet and Social Networking Sites.

1. Print Media: The Beginning of Print Media There are many Kannada language newspapers that has served the media industry significantly and also have earned significant recognition. Some of the leading Kannada language newspapers include. Prajavani, Kannada Prabha, Samyukta Karnataka, Vijaya Karnataka, Hosa Digantha, Sanje Vani, Udaya Vani, Andolan, Esanje etc.

2. Electronic Media:

a. Radio: Radio broadcasting which commenced in India through amateur ‘HAM’ Broadcasting Clubs in Kolkata and Chennai in the 1920s, matured into a public broadcasting system in the 1940s during World War II when it became a major instrument of propaganda for Allied forces in South East Asia.

At the time of independence, there was only 6 radio station located in the major cities catering primarily to an urban audience. A Radio Transmission center called Akashavani was started by Dr. M.V. Gopalaswamy, at Mysore University in 1935 through private effort.

The station was later taken over by the state Government in January 1941 and it was shifted to Bangalore in November 1955. The first AIR station in the North Karnataka Region started functioning at Dharwad, on 8^th November 1950. In 1964, Vividh Bharathi (CBS) was added to the Dharwad unit. Auxiliary stations at Bhadravathi and Gulbarga were started in 1965 and 1966 respectively.

Apart from AH India Radio (AIR), there is Vividh Bharati, a channel for entertainment that was primarily broadcasting film songs on listeners’ requests. Vividh Bharati, which soon began to carry sponsored programs and advertisements, grew to become a money-spinning channel for AIR.

Akasha Vani (Kannada version of AIR) headquarters is at Bangalore and there are regional centers at Mysore, Bhadravathi, Dharwad, and Gulbarga covering broadcasting news, entertainment, sponsored programs, and commercial programs, etc.

FM Radio (Frequency Modulator Radio): The advent of privately owned FM radio stations in 2002, provided a boost to entertainment programs over the radio. In order to attract audiences, these radio stations provide entertainment. They specialize in ‘particular’ kinds of popular music to retain their audiences.

Most of the FM channels which are popular among urbanites and students often belong to media conglomerates. ‘Radio Mirchi’ belong to Times of India group, Red FM is owned by Living Media and Radio City by the Star Network.

b. Television (T.V.): television programming was introduced experimentally in India to promote rural development in early 1959. ‘Krishi Darshan’ was the first program telecast on Door darshan. Later, the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was broadcasting directly to community viewers in the rural areas of six states between August 1975 and July 1976.

These instructional broadcasts to 2,400 TV sets directly were for 4 hours daily. Meanwhile, Television stations were set up 1 under Doordarshan in 4 cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar and Amritsar) by 1975. The advent of colour broadcasting during the year 1982 Asian Games in Delhi and the rapid expansion of the national network led to the rapid commercialization of T.V. broadcasting.

Gulbarga was the first center in Karnataka to have a relay center, it was inaugurated on 3-9-1977 and at the outset within a radius of 40 km, 240 villages and towns of Raichur and Vijayapura Districts and Gulbarga were benefitted. Community TV sets were maintained and serviced by the Doordarshan Kendra, Gulbarga, Bangalore city was provided with an interim TV Relay centre on 1- 1-1981.

Udaya news was the first private channel to broadcast news in Kannada language. At present, there are 8 Kannada news channels viz., TV-9, Suvarna News, Kasturi 24 × 7, Samaya News, Udaya News, Janashree News and Raj News. ETV News and a few more news channels will also come up short.

c. Internet: Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks consisting of millions of private, public, academic, business networks which are linked with the networking technology. In simple words Internet is a network of networks.

d. Social Networking Sites (SNS): Social Networking Sites are defined as online platforms that focus on building and reflecting social networks or social relations among people who share interests and activities. Further, social networking sites are a type of virtual community that has grown tremendously in popularly.

The Narasinganavar family is a patriarchal Joint family of about 206 individuals who are residing together in the village of Lokur in the Dharwad district of Karnataka. All the individuals in the family share a common ancestry and this family is recognised as one of the largest undivided families in the world. The family spans across five generations.

Bhimanna Jinapa Narasinganavar is the patriarch of the family. For India’s largest joint family, balancing the family is a forbidding task. The Narsingnavar family finds that expenditure on its 206 members always seems to be more than its income.

Patriarch Narsingnavar (72), who has been handling money matters of this jumbo family for the past 30 years, says “We believe family finances could be the biggest source of discontent. In their wisdom and sincerity, the elders gave me this job. Whatever I do well be in the interest of the family”.

Agriculture is the main occupation for this family. It owns 270 acres of cultivable land, the annual 1 income is Rs 8 lakh to Rs 12 lakh depending on the monsoon and market. Its annual expenditure of around Rs 10 lakh is largely on farm labour and agriculture machinery. While the family’s requirement of food grains, vegetables and milk are met by its own efforts, it spends a substantial amount on provisions, clothes, medicines, soap, and tea.

If there’s resource crunch, the earning members contribute to the common kitty and Bheemanna keeps a meticulous record of the transactions. Weddings are performed every eight or ten years with several marriages being solemnised at the same time. The family’s only source of entertainment is TV.

The Narasinganavar family is a patriarchal Joint j family of about 206 individuals who are residing together in the village of Lokur in the Dharwad district of Karnataka. All the individuals in the family share a common ancestry and this family is ‘recognized as one of the largest undivided families in the world.

The family spans across five generations. Bhimanna Jinapa Narasinganavar is the part of the family. For India’s largest joint family, balancing the family is a forbidding task. The Narsingnavar family finds that expenditure on its 206 members always seems to be more than its income.

Patriarch Narsingnavar (72), who has been handling money matters of this jumbo family for the past 30 years, says “We believe family finances could be the biggest source of discontent. In their wisdom and sincerity, the elders gave me this job. Whatever I do well be in the interest of the family.

Agriculture is the main occupation for this family. It owns 270 acres of cultivable land, the annual 1 income is Rs 8 lakh to Rs 12 lakh depending on the monsoon and market. Its annual expenditure of around Rs 10 lakh is largely on farm labour and agriculture machinery.

While the family’s requirement of food grains, vegetables and milk are met by its own efforts, it spends a substantial amount on provisions, clothes, medicines, soap and tea. If there’s resource crunch, the earning members contribute to the common kitty and Bheemanna keeps a meticulous record of the transactions.

Weddings are performed every eight or ten years with several marriages being solemnised at the same time. The family’s only source of entertainment is TV.

In the 21^st century, communication technology is such that information can be shared instantaneously by millions of people simultaneously, almost anywhere around the world. Communication the transfer of information from one individual or group to another, whether by speech or through the mass media of modern times is crucial to any society.

According to Marshall McLuhan, society is influenced much more by the type of the media than by the content, or the messages, which the media convey. The electronic media, according to Marshal McLuhan. are creating a Global village people throughout the world see major events unfold and hence participate in them together.

It is the Internet, at the heart of this communications revolution. With the expansion of technologies such as voice recognition, broadband transmission, web casting and cable links, the Internet became the conduit for the delivery of information, entertainment, advertising and commerce to media audiences.

Neil Postman in his book, Amusing Our-selves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show’ Business, says television presents serious issues as entertainment because the form excludes the content. As Postman states, the medium of print creates a rational population, whereas the medium of television creates an entertained one.

Robert Putnam is referring Media as a social capital to useful social networks, a sense of mutual obligation and trustworthiness, an understanding of the norms that govern effective behaviour and, in general other social resources that enable people to act effectively.

Putnam in his book Bowling Alone finds significant decline in social capital over the last few decades. TV viewing is strongly and negatively related to social trust and group membership.

Horkheimer and Adorno made an extensive study of what they called the ‘culture industry’ meaning the entertainment industries of film, TV, popular music, radio, newspapers and magazines. They argued that the production of culture had become just as standardized and dominated by the desire for profit as other industries.

Art disappears, swamped by commercialization and culture is replaced by entertainment. Jurgen Habermas has analysed the media as decay – of the ‘public sphere’. The public sphere is an arena of public debate in which issues of general concern can be discussed and opinions formed.

According to Habermas, the -public sphere developed first in the salons and coffee houses of London, Paris and other European cities. Habermas argues that the salons were vital to the early development of democracy, for they introduced the idea of resolving political problems through public discussion.

The public sphere – at least in principle – involves individuals coming together as equals in a forum for public debate. The spread of mass media and mass entertainment causes the public sphere to become largely a sham. ‘Public opinion’ is not formed through open rational discussion, but through manipulation and control – as, for example, in advertising.

Jean Baudrillard regards impact of modem mass media as Hyper Reality The coming of the mass media, particularly electronic media such as Television, has transformed the very nature of our lives. TV does not just ‘represent’ the world to us it increasingly defines, what the world in which we live actually is Consider as an example the trial of O. J. Simpson, a celebrated court case that unfolded in Los Angeles in 1994-95.

Today the main problems of Tribals is De-Sanskritization .

1. Industrialization: With the establishment of factories in many places of the country, agriculture was pushed to the background and with it changed those social institutions which were it products. The industrial centers pulled persons out of the traditional peasant society comprising of joint families.

This struck at the roots of joint families and the process of change started. Furthermore, the process of change in joint family gained momentum from the rapid development of transport and communication.

2. Urbanization: The percentage of workers dependent on agriculture has come down and more and more people migrate to cities and towns in search of jobs.

The urban centers also provide people with various amenities of life concerning transport and communication, sanitation and health, education and employment etc., People are tempted by the lure of urban facilities and there is a rural to urban type of migration.

Gradually joint family hold is losing its control Inheritance Act of 1929, and the Hindu women’s Right to Property Act of 1937. Sati Prevention Act 1782, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1902 have brought changes in family relations.

After independence, the process has continued and fundamental changes in the law of inheritance have been brought about by the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and the Civil Marriage Act, 1957 gave the freedom to adult males and females to many according to their choice and helped the women to seek divorce on certain grounds.

All these legislations gave enough facility to the members to divide the joint family immediately after the death of the father. The necessity of jointness has also weakened due to various governmental provisions relating to old age pension, widow pension etc.

Problems of Indian cities can be classified in the following ways: 

1. Urban Poverty: Urban poverty is the by-product of industrialization and urbanization. Poverty and overcrowding are the two most visible features of Indian cities. About half of the urbanites are poor and live in substandard life, because of cost of living, lack of regular income, low wages, pro-rich economic policies, inflation, etc.

India has issued its first-ever report on the nature and dynamics of urban poverty in the country undertaken with the support of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), India Urban Poverty Report 2009 which identifies the problems faced by the poor and focuses on the systematic changes that are needed to address them.

The report examines various issues related to urban poverty, such as migration, labor, the role of gender, access to basic services and the appalling condition of India’s slums. It also looks at the dynamics of urban land and capital market, urban governance, and the marginalization of the poor to the urban periphery.

2. Slums: The magnitude of the problem of slums is alarming. The Government of India, in order to implement the various schemes for urban development, has defined a slum area as follows:

A slum area means any area where such dwellings predominate of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty arrangement of buildings, narrowness and faulty arrangement of streets, lack of ventilation, lack of sanitation facilities, inadequacy of open spaces and community facilities or any combination of these factors, are detrimental to safety, health or morale,” These slum areas are also referred to as the ‘Blighted area’; ‘Renewal area’; ‘deteriorated area’, ‘Gray area’; ‘Lower class neighborhood’; ‘Lower income area’, etc.

3. Problem of Urban Housing: The bulk of the people in the Indian cities live in one-room or in thatched huts in the sprawling slums or on the pavements. Another sad feature is total lack of essential municipal services like water supply, drainage, sewarage, lighting, -roads, etc.

Further, large proportion of the rural migrants have been bringing with them unskilled persons who take up unskilled jobs in the services, trade, industries, etc. Generally a single room has to meet all the requirements of the family including cooking, living, sleeping which make confinement.

It is difficult to keep reasonably clean and sanitary washing and bathing facilities. The inconvenience they have to undergo is aggravated during the rainy days. Almost all the above mentioned conditions are found in shawls of Mumbai, that as of Kanpur, bastis of Kolkata, cheris of Chennai as well as in Dhowrahas of the mining centres and barracks of the plantations in India.

These are made of brick walls and iron roof or huts consisting of bamboo walls and thatched roofs. The lanes are too narrow and the huts are built back to back. These lack facilities like bathing, washing and toilets, etc.

4. Sanitation and Pollution: It is accompanied with corrupt Municipal administration and inefficiency. According to UNICEF, lakhs of urban children in India die or suffer from diarrhea, diphtheria, tetanus and measles etc.

5. Transportation and Traffic: Transportation and traffic picture in Indian cities is troublesome. Majority of people use buses and other vehicles, while a few use rails as transport system. The increasing number of two wheelers and other types of vehicles make the traffic problem worse.

(d) All of these

Modernization in India is undergoing the following processes: 

1. At the economic level, there is a persistent and growing tendency to adopt the rational, mechanized industrial economy in place of older communal familistic tool economy. This is even responsible for the breakdown of traditional systems like jajmani system.

2. At the political level, the change in the power structure is being introduced through the abolition of semi-feudal group-oriented power structure of the past and by replacing it by a rational parliamentary democratic structure of power.

3. At the cultural level, the change in the realm of values ‘is from sacred value system to secular value system.4. At the social level, there is a decline in the traditional principle of ascribed status and role to achieve status and role. Yogendra Singh in his work “Modernization of Indian Tradition” is of the opinion that a unique feature of modernization in India is that it is being carried forward through adaptive changes in the traditional structures rather than structural dissociation or breakdown.

Dilapidated and Poor Houses.

Solutions to urban problems are: 

1. Systematic development of cities and creation of job opportunities, which can permit multifunctional activities to sustain people in cities.

2. To check migration, regional planning to provide employment at their native places is essential. 

3. Encouraging industries to move to Backward areas. This will take care of linear development of metropolitan and big cities and also there will not be regional imbalance.

4. Municipalities should find their own financial resources. A city must bear the cost of its own development. 

5. Encouraging private transportation facilities in view of the better services. 

6. Adopting pragmatic housing policies and encouragement of private investment, use of new and advanced technologies. Building of low-cost houses, promotion of co-operative housing societies, etc. It has to develop special schemes for the poor and low-income people.

Structural decentralization of municipal activities and community participation in the city activities. Modified and controlled liberalization, accountable bureaucrats and responsible elected body must work for the sake of area in the honest manner.

From the late 1980s and early 1990s, newspapers have become fully automatic – from reporter’s desk to final page proof. The use of paper has been completely eliminated with this automated chain. This has become possible because of two technological changes – networking of personal computers (PCs) through LANs (local area networks) and use of news making software like News maker and other customised software.

Changing technology has also changed the role and function of a reporter. The basic tools of a news reporter a shorthand notebook, pen, typewriter, and telephone has been replaced by new tools a mini tape recorder, a laptop or a personal computer (PC), mobile or satellite phone, and other accessories like modem.

All these technological changes in news gathering have increased the speed of news and helped newspaper managements to push their deadlines to dawn. They are also able to plan a greater number of editions and provide the latest news to the readers. A number of newspapers are using the new technologies to bring out separate editions for each of the districts.

While print centres are limited, the number of editions has grown manifold. Newspaper chains like Vijaya Kamatak are using new technology for news gathering as well as for improving pictorial coverage. The newspaper has a network of nearly a hundred reporters and staffers and an equal number of photographers, feeding news.

All the hundred correspondents are equipped with PCs and modems for news transmission, and the photographers carry digital cameras with them. Digital images are sent to the central news desk via modems.

The Central Education Ministry organized a ‘Committee for National Integration’ in 1961 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand. The Integration Committee. gave some recommendations to promote and strengthen national integration. 

Some of them are stated below:

1. Re-organization of the syllabi at various levels primary, secondary, college and university level to promote national integration. 

2. Giving due encouragement to extracurricular activities besides imparting formal knowledge to the students with the intention of promoting national unity. 

3. Improvement of textbooks helps a great deal in giving a true national perspective to the students. They can be made to understand their rich cultural heritage and feel proud of their nation. 

4. Conducting Community programmes such as mass prayers, mass meetings, speeches by respected leaders, etc., to help to bring the people together.

A part from the governmental efforts to achieve the goal of national unity various stakeholders such as educational institutions, religious/cultural associations and mass media should involve in Chalking out action-based programmes to enhance awareness/dissemination of traditional values among the masses and increase cultural exchange banking on the richness of our cultural heritage and diversity.

Special steps should be taken by various interest groups to speed up the development of economically and socially backward groups who are the easy victims of violent activities.

The Central Education Ministry organized a ‘Committee for National Integration’ in 1961 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand. The Integration Committee gave some recommendations to promote and strengthen national integration. 

Some of them are stated below:

1. Re-organization of the syllabi at various levels – primary, secondary, college and university levels- to promote national integration.

2. Giving due encouragement to extra-curricular activities besides imparting formal knowledge to the students with the intention of promoting national unity.

3. Improvement of textbooks helps a great deal in giving a true national perspective to the students. They can be made to understand their rich cultural heritage and feel proud of their nation.

4. Conducting community programmes such as mass prayers, mass meetings, speeches by respected leaders, etc., to help to bring the people together.

Apart from the governmental efforts to achieve the goal of national unity, various stakeholders such as educational institutions, religious/cultural associations and mass media should involve in chalking out action-based programmes to enhance awareness/dissemination of traditional values among the masses and increase cultural exchange banking on the richness of our cultural heritage and diversity.

Special steps should be taken by various interest groups to speed up development of economically and socially backward groups who are the easy victims of violent activities.

1. Industrialization: With the establishment of factories in many places of the country, agriculture was pushed to the background and with it changed those social institutions which were its products. The industrial centers pulled persons out of the traditional peasant society comprising of joint families.

This struck at the roots of joint families and the process of change started. Furthermore, the process of change in joint family gained momentum from the rapid development of transport and communication.

2. Urbanization: The percentage of workers dependent on agriculture has come down and more and more people migrate to cities and towns in search of jobs.

The urban centers also provide people with various amenities of life concerning transport and communication, sanitation and health, education and employment, etc., People are tempted by the lure of urban facilities and there is a rural to urban type of migration. Gradually joint family hold is losing its control and nuclear families in cities have become the norm.

3. Rapid Growth of Population: Rapid growth of population has brought corresponding increase of pressure on land. Agriculture being the prime occupation of the villagers, the rural youth face the problem of unemployment. People have begun to move to cities and industrial centers in search of jobs. Thus they had to leave the traditional joint families which has resulted in the breakdown of jointness.

4. Education: Education changes the attitude of people. It enables people to get into various better-paying jobs or professions. Modern education leads to occupational mobility. It has not only brought changes in the attitudes, beliefs, values, and ideologies of the people but has also created the individualistic feelings.

The increasing education not only brings changes in the philosophy of life of men and women but also provides new avenues of employment leading to economic independence.

5. Changing Status of Women: Social reform movements and awareness among the women of their own position, all these have affected the patriarchal authority of the joint family system. The spread of modern education has enlightened women. Education has made them conscious of their rights and status in the society. It has brought about drastic changes in the practices and ideals of family.

They are no longer prepared to remain within the four walls of the household in the traditional subordinate position. Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshab Chandra Sen, Jyothiba Phule, Maharshi Karve, Pandit Ramabai and many others have worked and achieved considerable success to the cause of women.

All these factors affected the patriarchal authority of the joint family. As a sequel to that the process of disintegration has set in the joint family system.

6. Social Legislations: Legislations enacted during the British rule proved harmful for joint family. Gains of Learning Act of 1930, the Rights of Women to share in the property of the joint family by the Hindu Law of Inheritance Act of 1929, and the Hindu women’s Right to Property Act of 1937. Sati Prevention Act 1782, Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856, Child Marriage Restraint Act 1902 have brought changes in family relations.

After independence the process has continued and fundamental changes in the law of inheritance have been brought about by the Hindu Succession Act, 1956. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, and the Civil Marriage Act, 1957 gave the freedom to adult males and females to many according to their choice and helped the women to seek divorce on certain grounds.

All these. legislations gave enough facility to the members to divide the joint family immediately after the death of the father. The necessity of jointness has also weakened due to various governmental provisions relating to old-age pension, widow pension, etc.

Slums The magnitude of the problem of slums is alarming. The Government of India in order to implement the various schemes to urban development has defined a slum area as follows:

“A slum area means any area where such dilapidated dwellings predominate, overcrowding, faulty arrangement of buildings, narrowness and faulty arrangement of street, lack of ventilation, lack of sanitation facilities, inadequacy of open spaces and community facilities or any combination of these factors, are detrimental to safety, health or morals.”

These slum areas are also referred toas the ‘Blighted area’; ‘Renewal area’; ‘deteriorated area’, ‘Gray area’; ‘Lower class neighborhood’; ‘Lower income area’, etc. It is in slums that poor people like industrial workers, casual labourers, hawkers, petty shopkeepers, vegetable-sellers and several others offering useful services to the city find a place to stay.

The National Institute of Urban Affairs, New Delhi, has recorded that the emergence of slums is essentially the product of three forces:

• City life style attracting more people from the rural areas offering greater potential for employment; 
• Its incapacity to meet the rising demand for housing, 
• The existing urban land policies, which prohibit the access of the poor to the urban land market.

It is further observed that the urban poor are left with no choice but to make or take shelter illegally on any available piece of land. Sometimes a slum is the consequence of blight in the old parts of the city. At times, a slum is inherited in the form of an old village or a haphazardly growing locality within the extended territorial limits of a town.

Characteristics of Slums: The physical aspects and general conditions of the slums are by and large the same everywhere. 

The foremost characteristics of slums can be briefly enumerated in the following manner:

1. Dilapidated and in poor condition houses: Slums are made of poor design and scrap materials. These are often raised on unauthorized land.

2. High Density of population and Housing: It leads to over-crowding and congestion; one room is often used for all practical purposes of domestic living. In Mum’bai and in many other big cities, it can be seen that in the slum areas one room tenement with 100 sq.f. to 150 sq.f. of space is occupied by more than 10 persons.

4. Apathy and Social Isolation: Though the slum- dwellers are functionally integrated to the city life, apathy and social isolation characterize a s|um. Under these circumstances, the slum- dwellers find it almost impossible to improve these conditions through their own efforts.

The weekly market as a social institution, the links between the local Tribal economy and the outside, and the exploitative economic relationships between adivasis and others, are illustrated by a study of a weekly market in Bastar district. This district is populated by Gonds, an adivasi group.

At the weekly market, you find local people, including tribal and non-tribal, as well as outsiders-mainly traders of various castes. Forest officials also come to the market to conduct business with adiva is who work for the Forest Department, and the market attracts a variety of specialists selling their goods and services. 

The major goods that are exchanged in the market are:

1. Manufactured goods (such as jewelry and trinkets, pots and knives), 

2. Non-local foods (such as salt and haldi (turmeric)), 

3. Local food and agricultural products and manufactured items (such as bamboo baskets), and.

4. Forest produce such as tamarind, oil-seeds and etc. The forest produces that is brought by Adivasis purchased by traders who carry it to towns.

The Central Education Ministry organized a ‘Committee for National Integration’ in 1961 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand. The Integration Committee. gave some recommendations to promote and strengthen national integration. 

Some of them are stated below:

1. Re-organization of the syllabi at various levels primary, secondary, college and university level to promote national integration. 

2. Giving due encouragement to extracurricular activities besides imparting formal knowledge to the students with the intention of promoting national unity. 

3. Improvement of textbooks helps a great deal in giving a true national perspective to the students. They can be made to understand their rich cultural heritage and feel proud of their nation.

4. Conducting Community programmes such as mass prayers, mass meetings, speeches by respected leaders, etc., to help to bring the people together, Apart from the governmental efforts to achieve the goal of national unity various stakeholders such as educational institutions, religious/cultural associations and mass media should involve in.

Chalking out action-based programmes to enhance awareness/dissemination of traditional values among the masses and increase cultural exchange banking on the richness of our cultural heritage and diversity. Special steps should be taken by various interest groups to speed up the development of economically and socially backward groups who are the easy victims of violent activities.

The impact of British rule on caste system in India maybe studied under the following heads.

1. Introduction of Universalistic Legal system. 

2. Impact of English Education. 

3. Impact of Social Reform Movements. 

4. Influence of New Social Formation. 

5. Impact of Freedom Struggle. 

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization.

1. Introduction of Universalistic Legal System: The establishment of British courts removed authority from the purview of caste panchayats. Under this new principle of justice, all are equal before the law, and the caste panchayats lost their former importance.

Some major legislation were the following:

• The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850. This act served to remove some of the disabilities associated with castes including the practice of untouchability. 
• The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856, This act made legal, provision for the Hindu widows to remarry. 
• The Special Marriage Act of 1872 considered marriage as a civil contract and legalized inter-caste or inter-religious marriages. 
• Other legislative and administrative measures were put into effect, like Government schools to be open to all classes of subjects, stopping of gran s to schools and refusing admission to depressed class, public places to be men to everybody and constitutional provisions for representation in legislative bodies for them.

2. Impact of English Education: British education was based on scientific, secular and universal principles. It was made accessible to everyone, irrespective of caste or community. It remained liberal in content. It propagated principles such as the liberty equality and fraternity.

As education spread to the lower strata, it kindled libertarian impulses among them. Western education provided an indispensable passport to the new economic opportunities. Members from the lower castes became professionals and embraced the new commercial opportunities offered by western education.

3. Impact of Social Reform Movements: Social reform movements brought changes in the caste system in British period. They set out to eradicate caste and to establish a casteless and, classless society. Brahma Samaj by Rajaram Mohan Roy, Prarthana Samaj by Atmaram Pandurang, Arya Samaj by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi, Ramakrishna Mission by Swami Vivekananda, Theosophical Society by Annie Besant and Divine Life Society by Maharshi Arabindo Ghosh were leading movements. All these organizations aimed at the destruction of caste system and social reconstruction of Indian society.

4. Impact of New Social Formations: The new economic system brought about a new grouping of the population in the economic sphere. The Indians got differentiated into capitalists, workers, peasants, propritiators, merchants, tenants, landlords, doctors, lawyers, teachers and technicians. Each category being composed of individuals belonging to various castes, but having identical material! and political interests. This division weakened the vertical caste lines.

Thus there came into existence such, organizations as Mil! Owners Associations, Ail India Trace Union Congress. All India Kishan Sabha and etc., these groups struggled for their own interests. In the process of this struggle, they developed a new consciousness and outlook and a new solidarity, which slowly weakened the caste consciousness.

5. Impact of Freedom Struggle: The growth of the nationalist movement played a great role in weakening caste consciousness. In India, the presence of foreign rule was a permanent stimulus to the Indians to unite on a national basis. Thus the growth of the national movement undermined the caste consciousness.

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization: The growth of Industries destroyed the old craft and provided new ways to earn a livelihood. Occupational mobility and movement from compact ancestral villages started breaking down the caste norms. New transport facilities, specially crowded trains and buses, threw together millions of people of all castes and left little room for the necessities of ceremonial purity.

Taboos on food and water gradually weakened when industrial workers belonging to various castes started working under one roof and having food at a common canteen. The demarcation observed by the members of different castes regarding eating food, physical contact with those of other castes, steadily crumbled in cities.

The impact of British rule on caste system in India may be studied under the following heads.

1. Introduction of Universalistic Legal system. 

2. Impact of English Education. 

3. Impact of Social Reform Movements. 

4. Influence of New Social Formation. 

5. Impact of Freedom Struggle. 

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization.

1. Introduction of Universalistic Legal System: The establishment of British courts removed authority from the purview of caste panchayats. Under this new principle of justice,all are equal before the law, and the caste panchayats lost their former importance.

Some major legislations were the following: 

a. The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850. This act served to remove some of the disabilities associated with castes including the practice of untouchability.

b. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856, This act made legal, provision for the Hindu widows to remarry.

c. The Special Marriage Act of 1872 considered marriage as a civil contract and legalized inter-caste or inter-religious marriages.

d. Other legislative and administrative measures were put into effect, like Government schools to be open to all classes of subjects, stopping of gran s to schools and refusing admission to depressed class, public places to be men to everybody and constitutional provisions for representation in legislative bodies for them.

2. Impact of English Education: British education was based on scientific, secular and universal principles. It was made accessible to everyone, irrespective of caste or community. It remained liberal in content. It propagated principles such as the liberty equality and fraternity.

As education spread to the lower strata, it kindled libertarian impulses among them. Western education provided an indispensable passport to the new economic opportunities. Members from the lower castes became professionals and embraced the new commercial opportunities offered by western education.

3. Impact of Social Reform Movements: Social reform movements brought changes in the caste system in British period. They set out to eradicate caste and to establish a casteless and, classless society.

Brahma Samaj by Rajaram Mohan Roy, Prarthana Samaj by Atmaram Pandurang, Arya Samaj by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi, Ramakrishna Mission by Swami Vivekananda, Theosophical Society by Annie Besant and Divine Life Society by Maharshi Aurobindo Ghosh were leading movements.

All these organizations aimed at the destruction of caste system and social reconstruction of Indian society.

4. Impact of New Social Formations: The new economic system brought about a new grouping of the population in the economic sphere. The Indians got differentiated into capitalists, workers, peasants, proprietors, merchants, tenants, land lords, doctors, lawyers, teachers and technicians.

Each category being composed of individuals belonging to various castes, but having identical material and political interests. This division weakened the vertical caste lines. Thus there came into existence such, organizations as Mil! Owners Associations, All India Trace Union Congress.

All India Kishan Sabha and etc., these groups struggled for their own interests. In the process of this struggle they developed a new consciousness and outlook and a new solidarity, which slowly weakened the caste consciousness.

5. Impact of Freedom Struggle: The growth of the nationalist movement played a great role in weakening caste consciousness. In India, the presence of foreign rule was a permanent stimulus to the Indians to unite on a national basis. Thus the growth of the national movement undermined the caste consciousness.

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization: The growth of Industries destroyed the old craft and provided new ways to earn a livelihood. Occupational mobility and movement from compact ancestral villages started breaking down the caste norms.

New transport facilities, especially crowded trains, and buses, threw together millions of people of all castes and left little room for the necessities of ceremonial purity. Taboos on food and water gradually weakened when industrial workers belonging to various castes started working under one roof and having food at a common canteen.

He demarcation observed by the members of different castes regarding eating food, physical contact with those of other castes, steadily crumbled in cities.

Functional changes in the joint family are the following: 

1. Changes in the provision of common residence: Earlier, a joint family was providing common residence and basic requirements to its members. Nowadays, the location of their jobs is forcing the family members to find their residences elsewhere.

2. Changes in religious functions: Even though some of the family members are. forced to live separately, they celebrate festivals, feasting, marriages, rituals, ancestral worship together at one place.

3. Changes in the role of protection and socialization of children: In joint families uers and other relatives used to take care of children and their needs. Today, various agencies are providing protection through day-care centres, insurance companies, schools and playhomes, maternity homes and orphanages. The roles of the elder members and their importance in the process of socialization has significantly reduced.

4. Changes in economic functions : Earlier, the financial needs of all the members were taken care of by the common fund and emergencies were addressed suitably. As the younger generation move away from the joint family fold, seeking better prospects and employment at far off places, they have to fend for themselves. The earlier economic functions of joint family have changed drastically.

5. Changes in recreational functions: Joint family has almost transformed its recreational activities to the external. Commercial agencies, newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, cinema, videogames and sports have taken over the recreational functions of joint family.

Demography is the systematic study of population. The term Demography is derived from two Greek words i.e. demos (people) and graphein (describe), implying the description of people. The term Demography was coined by Achille Guillard in 1855. Demography studies the trends and processes associated with population including – changes in population size; patterns of births, deaths, and migration; and the structure and composition of the population, such as the relative proportions of women, men and different age groups.

There are different varieties of demography, including Formal demography which is a largely quantitative field, and Social demography which focuses on the social, economic or political aspects of population. All demographic studies are based on processes of counting or enumeration – such as the census or the survey – which involve the systematic collection of data on the people residing within a specified territory.

In India, census was conducted by the British Indian government between 1867-72, and regular ten yearly (decennial) censuses have been, conducted since 1881. Independent India continued the practice, and seven decennial censuses have been conducted since 1951, the most recent being in 2011. Demographic data are important for the planning and implementation of state policies, especially those for economic development and general public welfare.

The Major characteristics of the Demographic Profile of India:

• Size and Growth of India’s population 
• Age structure of the Indian population 
• Sex-Ratio in India. 
• Birth rate and Death rate 
• Increasing Literacy rate of Indian population. 
• Increasing Rural-Urban differences

1. Size and Growth of India’s Population: India is the second most populous country in the world after China. According to the 2011 census, India’s population is 121 crores(1.21 billion). Between 1901-1951 the average annual growth rate did not exceed 1.33%, a modest rate of growth. In fact, between 1911 and 1921 there was a negative rate of growth of – 0.03%. This was because of the influenza epidemic during 1918-19.

The growth rate of population substantially increased after independence from British rule going up to 2.2% during 1961- 1981. Since then although the annual growth rate has decreased it remains one of the highest in the developing world.

2. Age structure of the Indian population: India has a very young population – that is, majority of Indians tend to be young, compared to most other countries. The share of the less than 15 age group in the total population has come down from its highest level of 42% in 1971 to 29% in 2011. The share of the 15-60 age group has increased from 53% to 63%, while the share of the 60+ age group is very small but it has begun to increase (from 5% to 8%) over the same period.

But the age composition of the Indian population is expected to change significantly in the next two decades. 0-14 age group will reduce its share by about 11% (from 34% in 2001 to 23% in 2026) while the 60 plus age .group will increase its share by about 5% (from 8% in 2001 to about 12% in 2026).

3. The declining Sex-ratio in India: The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. The sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males. The trends of the last four decades have been particularly worrying – from 941 in 1961 the sex ratio had fallen to an all time low of 927 in 1991 before posting a modest increase in 2001.

According to the Census of India 2011, sex ratio has increased and now it is 940 females per 1000 males. But what has really alarmed demographers, policymakers, social activists, and concerned Citizens is the drastic fall in the child sex ratio. The sex ratio for the 0 – 6 years age group (known as the juvenile or child sex ratio) has generally been substantially higher than the overall sex ratio for all age groups, but it has been falling very sharply.

In fact, the decade 1991-2001 represents an anomaly in that the overall 1 sex ratio has posted its highest ever increase of 6 points from the all time low of 927 to 933, but the child sex ratio in 2011 census has dropped from 927 to 914, a plunge of 13 points taking it below the overall sex ratio for the first time.

4. Increasing literacy rate of Indian population: Literacy varies considerably across gender, regions, and social groups. The literacy rate for women is almost 22% less than the literacy rate for men. However, female literacy has been rising faster than male literacy, partly because it started from relatively low levels.

Female literacy rose by about 11.2 percent between 2001 and 2011 compared to the rise in male literacy of 6.2 percent in the same period. Female literacy which was 8.9% in 1951, has increased to 65.4 in 2011. Male literacy in the same period was 27.2% which has increased to 82.17. Total literacy rate of 18.3% in 1951 has increased to 74.04 in 2011.

5. Increasing Rural-Urban differences: According to the 2011 Census, 68.8% of the population lives in rural areas while 31.2% of people live in urban areas. The urban population has been increasing steadily, from about 17.3% in 1951 to 31.2 in 2011, an increase of about two-and-a-half times.

Poverty, slums, shelter, water shortage.

The impact of British rule on the caste system in India may be studied under the following heads.

1. Introduction of universalistic Legal system 

2. Impact of English Education 

3. Impact of Social Reform Movement 

4. Influence of New Social Formation 

5. Impact of Freedom.Struggle

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization.

1. Introduction of Universalistic Legal System: The establishment of British courts removed authority from the purview of caste panchayats. They introduced a new principle s of justice, according to which all are equal before the law, and the caste panchayat in v proportion lost their former importance. 

Some of the legislation which brought changes in the caste system can be made as the, following.

a. The Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850 This act served to remove some of the disabilities associated with castes including the practice of untouchability.

b. The Hindu Widow Remarriage Act 1856, This act made legal provision for the Hindu widows to remarry. 

c. The Special Marriage Act of 1872 which considered marriage as a civil-contract and legalized inter-caste or inter-religious marriage.

d. Other Legislative and Administrative Measures. In 1858 the British government announced that all schools maintained by the government shall be open to all the classes of its subjects without any discrimination. In 1923, the government issued a resolution that no grants would be paid to any aided educational institutions, which refused admission to the children of the depressed classes.

e. In 1925, a bill was passed by the Madras- legislative council, throwing open all public office, well, tank, or place of public resort, to all classes of people including the depressed. Montogue Chelmshford reforms made constitutional provisions for the special representation of depressed classes in the local as well as in the legislative bodies.

2. Impact of English Education: British education was based on scientific, secular and universal principles. It made an accessible to everyone, irrespective of caste or community, who could pay for it. It remained liberal in content. It propagated principles such as the liberty equality and fraternity.

As education spread to the lower strata, It kindled libertarian impulses among them. Western education provided an indispensable passport to the new economic opportunities. Members from the lower castes became different professionals and took new commercial opportunities offered, by the western education.

3. Impact of Social Reform Movements: Social reforms movements brought changes in ‘the caste system in the British period. They were set out to eradicate caste and to establish a casteless and, classless society. They were against the fictitious difference between caste. They attacked the tendencies of separatism and Inequality in the caste system. 

Some important social reform movements are:

• The Brahma Samaj founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. 
• Prarthana Samaja’s Athma Rama Pandurang Justice M. Ranade. 
• The Arya Samaja founded by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathi. 
• The Ramakrishna Mission represents the synthesis of the ancient and the modem thoughts. Swami Vivekananda started Ramakrishna Mission. 
• Other Reform Movements such as Annie Beasant’s Theosophical society, Maharshi Arabindo Ghosh’s Divine life Society and etc. Thus all these organizations aimed at the destruction of the caste system and social reconstruction of Indian society.

4. Impact of New Social Formations: The new economic system brought about a new grouping of the population in the economic sphere. The Indians could be differentiated into such categories as capitalists, workers, peasants, proprietors, merchants, tenants, landlords, doctors, lawyers, teachers, and technicians. Each category being composed of individuals belonging to various castes, but having identical material and political, interests.

This division weakened the vertical caste lines. Thus there came into existence such organization as Mill Owners Associations, All India Trade Union Congress, All India Kishan Sabhaand, etc., these groups struggled for their own interests. In the process of this struggle, they developed a new consciousness and outlook and a new solidarity, which slowly weakened the caste consciousness.

5. Impact of Freedom Struggle: The growth of the nationalist movement played a great role in weakening caste consciousness. In India, the presence of foreign rule was a permanent stimulus to the Indians to unite on a national basis. Thus the growth of the national movement undermined the caste consciousness.

6. Impact of Industrialization and Urbanization: The growth of Industries destroyed the old craft and provided new ways to earn a livelihood. Occupational t mobility and movement from compact ancestral village started breaking down in the caste norms. New transport facilities, specially crowed trains and buses, which threw together millions of people of all castes and left little room for the necessities of ceremonial purity.

Taboos on food and water gradually weakening when industrial workers belonging to various castes started working under one roof. The demarcation observed by the members of different castes regarding eating food, physical contact with those of other castes, steadily crumbled in cities.

Objectives of the Towards Equality Report -1974 are the following:

1. To examine the Constitutional, legal, and administrative provisions that have a bearing on the social status of women, their education and employment. 

2. To assess the impact of these provisions during the last two decades on the status of women in the country, particularly in the rural sector and to suggest more effective programmes.

Objectives of the Towards Equality Report -1974 are the following:

1. To examine the Constitutional, legal, and administrative provisions that have a bearing on the social status of women, their education and employment. 

2. To assess the impact of these provisions during the last two decades on the status of women in the country, particularly in the rural sector and to suggest more effective programmes.

A National Commission was formed to examine the status and problems of Indian women. Report of this Commission is called as ‘Towards Equality Report 1974’. 

Objectives of the Towards Equality Report are the following:

1. To examine the Constitutional, legal, and administrative provisions that have a bearing on the social status of women, their education and employment. 

2. To assess the impact of these provisions during the last two decades on the status of women in the country, particularly in the rural sector and to suggest more effective programmes. 

3. To consider the development of education among women and determine the factors responsible for the slow progress in some areas and suggest remedial measures. 

4. To survey the problems of the working women including discrimination in employment and remuneration.

5. To examine the status of women as housewives and mothers in the changing social pattern and their problems in the sphere of further education and employment. 

6. To undertake survey of case studies on the implications of the population policies and family planning programmes on the status of women. 

7. To suggest any other measures which would enable women to play their roles to the fullest in building up the nation.

Objectives of the Towards Equality Report -1974 are the following:

1. To examine the Constitutional, legal, and administrative provisions that have a bearing on the social status of women, their education and employment.

2. To assess the impact of these provisions during the last two decades on the status of women in the country, particularly in the rural sector and to suggest more effective programs.

Voters Day is celebrated on 5th January of every year.