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Durkheim roduced the concept "Division of labour".

Redfield has given the concept of rural-urban continuum.

Formal relationship  is not a Characteristics of Village Community.

Use of machines and technological tools are common in modem society. Scientific development and approach towards making life more convenient, help the growth of society Ogbum and Nimkoff remark that the Most novel phenomena in society is not capitalism but Mechanization. The role of technology can be discovered in the following ways: 

1. Transport and communication: After 18th century, we see bhanges in society due to industrialization, communication and transportation. Such ca c lopment took place only because of growth in technology. As a result now modem technology has changed the joint family system and its relationships. Communication skills, transportation methods changed to such extent that today human world is called as “Global Village”.

2. Growth of classes: Industrialization leads to growth of urbanization. Industrialization brought opportunities for new professions. Youths are provided new jobs. Along with it new “Glass” system developed in society. Society is classified as upper middle and lower class.

Agriculture Changes in the agricultural technology directly influenced rural community invention of new agricultural tools and techniques’ chemical manures brought increase in agricultural production which influenced standard of living in village.

The concept of cultural lag was first introduced by W. F. Ogbum published in his book entitled ‘Social change’ in 1922. In his book he had delineated the two aspects of culture-material and non material. In that context he introduced the concept of cultural lag. By the very natural of it the material aspects changes quickly but the non material changes but slowly. The change between material and non material culture is called gap or lag. The word lag denotes crippled movement of one part of culture as compared with the other. Culture has two parts, material and nonmaterial. Both be changed by human begins.

In the process of change Ogbum believes that both the material culture and nonmaterial culture undergoes change. But the nonmaterial culture according to Ogbum is often slow to respond to the rapid changes in material culture. When non material culture cannot adjust itself to the material culture it falls behind the two. According to Ogbum this gap between the material culture and nonmaterial culture is called “cultural lag”

In the words of Ogbum “the strain that exists between two correlated parts of culture that change at unequal rates of speed may be interpreted as a lag in the part that is changing at the slowest rate for the one lags behind the other”. For example a lag is seen when people change method of cultivation without change in the land owning system. Thus according to Ogbum one of the main problems of adjustment in modem society is due to problem of uneven speed of change in material and non material culture.

Sumner gave Concept of In group and Out groups .

George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict 

1. War 

2. Feud or rational strife 

3. Litigation 

4. Conflict of impersonal ideas.

1. War: according to Simmel war represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in men. But to bring out this impulse into action some define objectives is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain material interests. 

2. Feud and factional strife: this is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.

3. Litigation: Litigation is ajudicial form of conflict. It is ajudicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objectives in nature. 

4. Conflict of impersonal ideas: This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideas. For ex, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their own system can bring in a better world order.

According to Malinowski: “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends” 

Characteristics of culture are:

Culture is learned: Culture is often understood as learned ways of behaviors. Culture is not an inborn tendency. It is acquired or learned. It includes those learned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore what is learned through socialization and are acquired in group life are what is called culture.

Culture is Social: Culture is not the property of any individual. It is the social heritage of man. It is a way of group life. It originates in and develops through social interaction. It consists of a number of behavior patterns that are common to a group of people. It is the inclusive of all expectation of the members of the groups. Thus culture is a social product shared by most of the members of the group.

Culture is Shared: Culture is a social property. It belongs to the group. The elements of culture such as customs beliefs, ideas, folkways, mores, and language are all belonged to the people of a group. These are commonly shared by the members of a group. So culture is the product of groups life. Culture cannot be hidden and used by one individual. According to Robert Bierstadt. “Culture is something adopted, used believed, practiced or possessed by more than one person”.

Culture is Transmissive: Culture is the total social heritage. It is linked with the past. The past continues because it lives in culture. Culture is something that can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is passed through language. Language is the chief vehicle of culture. Culture is also passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs. It is a product of human experience.

Types of conflict:

George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict (a) war (b) feud or rational strife (c) litigation (d) conflict of impersonal ideas.

War: According to Simmel war represents a deep-seated antagonistic impulse in men. But to bring out this impulse into action some define objectives is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain material interests.

Feud and factional strife: This is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.

Litigation: Litigation is a judicial form of conflict. It is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objectives in nature.

Conflict of impersonal ideas: This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideas. Forex, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their own system can bring in a better world order. 

Owing to the weakness of the analogy between biological and social evolution. Some sociologists preferred to used the term ‘Social Development’ to refer to the process of historical change. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Development means a gradual unfolding a fuller working out of details of anything. In the recent sociological literature the term Development is used firstly to refer to the distinction between two types of societies, namely Industrial Society and Rural and agricultural society.

Effects of Air pollutionAir pollution is a extensive problem badly affecting Man’s health, Plants and Animals.

• The minute particles of Sulphuric Dioxide, Coal, Silica, Barium and other chemicals cause lung cancer, heart diseases like hypertension. 
• Due to rapid technological radiation anemia, Leukemia, Cancer, Physical weakness are caused. 
• Due to air pollution world-famous marble Taj Mahal is getting destroyed stage by stage. The rare intricate carvings are getting spoiled day by day. 
• Due to use of different fuels the temperature of the earth is increasing. This is called a Greenhouse effect 
• The photosynthesis activities of plants and trees are showing down due to dirt and dust getting collected on leaves every day. This is sole reason for decreasing levels of oxygen in the air. 

Effects of water pollution: Water pollution leads to so many side effects. Those are:

• Contaminated water results in various water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid, Diarrhea, dysentery and other infectious diseases. 
• Contaminated water prevents photosynthesis and retards the growth of Plants and trees. 
• Because of oil leakage into the sea plants, sea animals and birds die. Every’ year nearly 50000 to 250000 birds die due to oil pollution of sea water. 
• Water pollution leads to damage of ozone layer. 

If polluted water is used for agriculture, Poisonous/ dangerous molecules are added to the food by products. Agriculture yield also reduced by 17% to 30% if polluted water is used Effects of noise pollution

Sound pollution result in various effects. These are as follows: 

• If the sound is more than 120-150 decibels, it results in respiratory disorders, physical imbalance, vomiting and deafness. 
• Sound pollution results in mental problem, disinterest in the work and leads to many mistakes. It also has effects on Animals and birds behavior 
• It increase heart rate, B.P and other heart related problems 
• Contribution is affected resulting in loss of memory.

Effects on soil Pollution Soil is one of the main source of the nature of pollution of the soil will leads to so many negative effects.

• Reduction in the crop yield 

The food obtained by the contaminated soil will spoil the human health 

• Soil contamination leads to the water scarcity in some regions causing the death of animal multitude 
• Contamination of soil will leads to the water pollution

Ogburn and Nimkoff says that sometimes “Boon to society is also opposed”

The factors for resistance are:

Inadequacy of invention: For one or the other reason. People may or may not show interest in inventions. Some time the innovatory fails to convince the community. Inventions do not impress community life or are needful by that perfect of time.

Fear: Men in general are happy with present. People always .feel that new disturbs or may bring new problems. When Thomas Edison invented electric bulb, exhibition of illuminating electric bulbs was arranged, immediately when electric bulb illuminated, people ran away with fear. Earlier people did not show interest in photography.

Ignorance: Education and training make him intelligent. Even though man is ignorant about new. Before he is given proper knowledge his ignorance make him to resist. Secondly some men do not even learn to live. They are happy with their ignorance. America took generations to learn use of iron plough. Material change and its resistances is temporary. For example Mahatma Gandhiji and his efforts are still in process to bring “non-alcoholic society”.

Habit: Man develops his personality thorough socialization. Once developed Personality cannot be changed easily. Personality is a complex whole of many habits. Habits force man to follow traditions. Habits influence our thoughts and daily life.. people hesitate to accept new rules and regulations in society.

Vested Interests: Vested Interests are selfish groups who want statuesque. Most social changes carry a threat to some vested interests. Land Reform Act in India brought change. But such change and legislative reformations were opposed by landlords. Orthodox society is always in fear of losing its interests, it opposes inter-caste marriage.

Economic Costs: Money play important role in adopting social change. For example to implement five year planning Indian government invested money. In recent tears cost of planning is raising. Some of the welfare measures like education, health, housing are lagging behind.

Lack of an integrated approach: Society is combination of different parts, for example religion, education, government are in social system only. Change in one element brings change in another part also. When we want to bring change in religion it is necessary to bring change in education system also. To eradicate blind belief or evil practices all other conditions in prevailing society should be changed.

Technical difficulties in implementation: Looking to new technical innovations, society adopt its life style. Community many times accepts technical changes immediately, but does not accept some time. Technical devices should be restructured or they are not suitable to the conditions, hence there is hindrance in acceptance. 

Intellectual Laziness: Creativity drive the attention immediately. Lack of creativity in man does not accept new. Active men agree to modern condition. Lazy do not. To understand the importance of new one must show interest in it. when there is lack of interest and do not pay attention, it is difficult to make men to change themselves.

Desire for stability: Society and its functions go smooth with required stability. Individuals are safe in stable society. Change disturbs the balance in present society. Often change brings insecurity to people in society. Common men feel 

1. No guarantee in new social system, and 

2. New things may bring pain. 

3. Pleasure and comforts may not exist in new 

4. Wants to maintain present status

Therefore, members in stable conditions do not accept change. Desire for stability is guarded against change.

Herbert Spencer is one of pioneers of Sociology and it has been described Herbert Spencer’s Sociology as socially Darwinistic. Herbert Spencer has been called as “Second Father Sociology.”

Being a famous evolutionist, Spencer was very much influenced by Charles Darwin’s book “The origin of the species”. He tried to apply the theory of Biological evolution to Sociology. Spencer used the concept of evolution of animals to explain the evolution of society and he compares the society to human organisms. His theory of organic analogy was very much popular earlier even though it has been rejected now. Spencer claimed that man’s mind has evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking of man. 

Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. He also developed a theory of two types of society. 

They are 

(1) militant society 

(2) Industrial society. 

These correspond to the evolutionary progression. Thus according to him, society is changing from simple form to complex form. Spencer stressed that the whole society should be considered as a unit of society.

According to him the different parts of society are interrelated and interdependent, not only the parts influence the whole system, but also, the whole system influences the parts. While explaining the stages of the development of society his attitude of comparison draws a special attention. Major works of Herbert Spencer are “Social Statics”, “First Principles”, “Principles of ‘ Ethics”, “The Man Versus State”, “The study of sociology”, Principles of sociology”.

Herbert Spencer is one of pioneers of Sociology and it has been described Herbert Spencer’s. Sociology as socially Darwinistic. Herbert Spencer has been called as “Second Father Sociology”.

Being a famous evolutionist, Spencer was very much influenced by Charles Darwin’s book “The origin of species”. He tried to apply the theory of Biological evolution to Sociology. Spencer used the concept of evolution of animals to explain the evolution of society and he compares the society to human organism. His theory of organic analogy was very much popular earlier even though it has been rejected now. Spencer claimed that man’s mind has evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking of man.

Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge – gained by the race. He also developed a theory of two types of society. They are (1) militant society (2) industrial society. These are corresponded to the evolutionary progression. Thus according to him society is changing from simple form to complex form. Spencer stressed that the whole society should be considered as a unit of society.

According to him the different parts of society are interrelated and interdependent, not only the parts influence the whole system, but also the whole system influences the parts. While explaining the stages of the development of society his attitude of comparison draws a special attention.

Major works of Herbert Spencer are “Social Statics”, “First Principles”, “Principles of Ethics”, “The Man Versus State”, “The study of Sociology”, Principles of Sociology”.

Jonson "Sociology is the science of social group".

• Writing is based on creativity and imagination. 
• Goal of creative writing is at appreciation. 
• Social events are depicted on aesthetic realms.
• Includes emotional reactions and individual experiences.

The three revolutions that paved the way for the emergence of Sociology took place in Western Europe. They were Renaissance, French Revolution and Industrial Revolution. The social issues in France after the Revolution led to the rise of Sociology.

(C) Zona glomerulosa

The thoughts and ideas of the French thinker Auguste Comte paved the study of Sociology. He called the discipline which he developed as Social Physics first and later as Sociology. Thus Auguste Comte is regarded as the Father of Sociology because of his contributions to the study of Sociology.

The thoughts of Auguste Compte, the French social scientist, laid the foundation of social science studies. He named the discipline he developed as social physics and later he renamed it as sociology. That is why Auguste Compte called the father of sociology.

Auguste Comte known as the Father of Sociology.

• Auguste Comte 
• Karl Marx 
• Emile Durkheim
• Max Weber

• Social institutions 
• Social relations 
• Social change 
• Social issues 
• Social groups 
• Social control 
• Socialisation Societies.

Sociology is the comprehensive study of the relation between man and his social environment.

Social Physics

Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber

Herbert Spencer

Correct answer is (ii) Herbert Spencer 

Tropisms are movements caused by external stimulus. In Botany the studied plant tropisms are: phototropism (tropism in response to light), geotropism (tropism in response to the earth gravity) and thigmotropism (tropism in response to mechanical stimulus).

a) Restriction endonuclease 

b) Ligase 

c) DNA profiling 

d) junk genes

e) Gene mapping 

f) Gene therapy

In human DNA, majority of genes, except the genes that code for protein are nonfunctional. They are called junk genes. 

The relevance of the Human Genome Project:

• Human genome has about 24000 functional genes.
• Major share of human DNA includes junk genes
• There is only 0.2 percent difference in DNA among humans.
• About 200 genes in human genome are identical to those in bacteria.

Genetic engineering influenced in the production of genetically modified disease resistant and high yield varieties of animals, food crops and cash crops.

Genes responsible for the production of human insulin and growth hormones etc. are identified and inserted in animals like cows or pigs to transform them into ‘pharm animals’ (animals providing pharmaceuticals or medicines).

Medicines thus produced can be extracted from the blood or milk of such animals.

a) ii 

b) iv,

c) i, 

d) ii

• Human insulin-producing bacteria.
• Pharm animals, which produce human insulin and growth hormones.
• Medicine producing plants.

It is easy to rear animals like cows or pigs than the culturing of bacteria. Moreover, medicines can be extracted from their blood or milk.

Dna Finger Printing

The arrangement of nucleotides in the DNA of each person differs. This finding leads to the DNA testing. The technology of testing the arrangement of nucleotides in each person also differs. Hence this technology is also called DNA fingerprinting. Alec Jeffrey in 1984 paved the way for DNA testing.

i) Gene mapping is a technology that identifies the location of a gene in the DNA. 

iii) Enzyme Ligase is used to join the genes.

Alec Jeffrey.

He paved the way for DNA testing, by which we can find out hereditary characteristics, identify real parents in the case of parental dispute and also can identify persons found after long periods of missing.

Human Genome Project

The arrangement of nucleotides in the DNA of each person differs.

The arrangement of nucleotides among close relatives have many similarities. So DNA fingerprinting is helpful to find out hereditary characteristics, to identify real parents in cases of parental dispute.

a) Gene therapy is the method of curing genetic diseases by removing diseasecausing genes from the genome and inserting normal functional genes.

b) Gene mapping

c) We can cure genetic diseases and disorders by gene therapy.

• Genetic modification can be allowed only for the benefit of mankind.
• Avoid all weapons including bioweapons, save life.
• Science and technologies are meant for protection, not for destruction.

d) X-ray diffraction.

DNA fingerprinting helpful to find out hereditary characteristics to identify real parents in cases of parental is missing due to natural calamities or wars. DNA of the skin hair, nail blood and other body fluids obtained from the place of murder, robbery, etc. is compared with the DNA of suspected persons. Thus the real culprit can be identified from among the suspected persons through this method.

Though there are certain possibilities of misuse, gene technology has many merits. Hence, we should utilize science and technologies for the well being of man and other living beings.

The basis of genetic engineering is the discovery of the fact that genes can be cut and joined.

• Restriction Endonuclease: The enzyme used to cut DNA at specific sites. This enzyme is known as genetic scissors.
• Liqase: The enzyme ligase is used for joining DNA at specific sites, this enzyme is called as genetic glue.
• Vectors: Plasmids in bacteria are generally used as vectors. A gene from one cell is transferred to another cell by using suitable vectors.

It is criticized that genetically modified varieties are threat to indigenous varieties and may cause health issues to humans. There are possibilities to use the genetically modified organisms are bioweapons that might be applied any country to their enemies is called Bio ware. This becomes a threat to the existence of human beings.

It is criticized that genetically modified varieties are threat to indigenous varieties and may cause health issues to human. There are possibilities to use the genetically modified organisms are bioweapons that might be applied any country to their enemies is called Bio ware. This becomes a threat to the existence of human beings.

Genetic Engineering

The use of microorganisms and biological processes for various human requisites is called biotechnology. The ability of fungi and bacteria to convert sugar into alcohol was utilized to make wine, appam and cake. These can be considered as traditional methods of biotechnology.

Genetic engineering is the modern form of biotechnology. Genetic engineering is the technology of controlling traits of Organisms by bringing about desirable changes in the genetic constitution of organisms.