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(c) Finally consumed goods and services

It can be divided in two parts :

1. Consumption goods
2. Capital goods.

(b) Production method

To avoid double counting.

In order to calculate national income by income method, the income of resources used in production process is added up. There are five factors of production – Land, labour, capital, organisation and enterpreneurship (courage). The returns of these five factors are received in the .form of rent, wages, interest, salary and profit respectively. Thus, all these five returns are added up to calculate gross national income.

Goods which are used in production process.

To avoid double counting in value added method, only the value of final consumable goods is added to find the correct value at every step. The expenditure made on factors of production is reduced from value of product.

Example : Production of bread includes three parties-baker, flourseller, and farmer. 

The value of product is calculated as follows :
Market value of bread = Rs.  30
Value of flour = Rs.  25
Value of wheat = Rs.  20
The production value of bread 

= Value of wheat + (value of flour – value of wheat) + (value of bread – value of flour)
= Rs. 20 + (Rs. 25 – Rs.  20) + (Rs.  30 – Rs. 25)
= Rs.  20 + Rs.  5 + Rs.  5
= Rs. 30 (This will be added to national income)
If we add the value of products of all the three parties 

(i.e. Rs. 30 + Rs. 25 +Rs. 20 = Rs. 75), then the value of production which we get is faulty.

(d) All of these

This method is used to measure national income in different phases of production in the circular flow. It shows the contribution (value added) of each producing unit in the production process.

Every individual enterprise adds certain value to the products, which it purchases from some other firm as intermediate goods. When value added by each and every individual firm is summed up, we get the value of national income.

Concept of value added – Value added refers to the addition of value to the raw material (intermediate goods) by a firm by virtue of its productive activities. It is the contribution of an enterprise to the current flow of goods and services. It is calculated as the difference between value of output and value of intermediate consumption.

Value added = Value of output – Intermediate consumption

Example of concept of value addition :
Suppose a baker needs only flour to produce bread. He purchases flour as input worth Rs. 500 from the miller and then by virtue of its productive activities converts the flour into bread and sells the bread for Rs. 700. In this, flour is an input (intermediate good) and its value of Rs. 500 is termed as value of ‘intermediate consumption’. Bread is the output and its value of Rs. 700 is termed as ‘value of output’. Difference between the value of output and intermediate consumption is termed as ‘value added’. It means, that the baker has added a value of Rs.200 to the total flow of final goods and services in the economy.

Market value of all the final goods and services produced in an economy plus net factor income from abroad in an accounting year is called gross national product.

Factor income earned by factors of production is spent in the form of expenditure on purchase of goods and services produced by firms. This method measures national income as the sum total of final expenditures incurred by households, business firms, government and foreigners. This total final expenditure is equal to gross domestic product at market price, i.e. ∑ Final expenditure = GDP_MP. 

This method is also known as ‘Income Disposal Method:

Components of Final expenditure : Expenditure is done by all the sectors of an economy, households, government, firms and foreign sector. The various components of final expenditure are :

1. Private final Consumption expenditure (PFCE) – It refers to expenditure incurred by households and private non-profit institutions providing all types of consumer goods, i.e. durable, semidurable goods and consumer services to the households.

2. Government Final Consumption Expenditure (GFCE) – It refers to the expenditure incurred by the government on various administrative services like defense, law and order, education, etc.

3. Gross domestic capital formation (GDCF) or Gross investment – It refers to the addition to capital stock of the economy. It represents the expenditure incurred on acquiring goods for investment by the production units located within the domestic territory.

4. Net Exports (X – M) – It refers to the difference between export and imports of a country during a period of one year.

The steps included in calculating national income by expenditure method are :

STEP I : Identify the economic units incurring final expenditure:

All the economic units, which incur final expenditure within the domestic territory are classified under four groups.

1. Household sector
2. Government Sector
3. Producing Sector
4. Rest of the world.

STEP II : Classification of final expenditure : 

Final expenditures incurred by the above mentioned economic units are estimated and classified under the following heads .
(a) Private final consumption expenditure (PFCE)
(b) Government final consumption expenditure (GFCE)
(c) Gross domestic capital formation (GDCF)
(d) Net exports (X – M)

The sum total of four components of final expenditure gives gross domestic product at market price. (GDP_MP).
i. e. GDP_MP = PFCE + GFCE + GDCF + (X – M)

STEP III : Calculate domestic income (NDP_FC):
By subtracting the amount of depreciation and net indirect taxes from GDP_MP, we get domestic income, i.e.
NDP_FC = GDP_MP – Dep – NIT

STEP IV : Estimate net factor income from abroad (NFIA) to arrive at national income: In the final step, NFIA is added to domestic income to arrive at national income.
National Income NNP_FC = NDP_FC + NFIA.

Those goods which are used to final the needs of a consumer are called final consumable goods.

There are three methods of calculation of national income:
(a) Product method or value added method – It is that method, which measures national income in terms of value addition by each producing enterprise in the economy during an accounting year.

(b) Income method – In this method, national income is measured in terms of factor payments (wages, rent, interest and profit) to the Owners of factors of production (labour, capital and enterprise) during an accounting year.

(c) Expenditure method – According to this method, national income is measured in terms of expenditure on the purchase of final goods and services produced in the economy during an accounting year.

In the production method of calculating national income, the market value of final goods and services produced by agriculture, minerals, industries and various services is calculated out and added to find the national income.

It is calculated for economic analysis, future prediction and policy making.

National income and economic welfare have direct relation, which means economic welfare increases with the increase in national income and vice-versa. Economic welfare refers to that welfare which can be measured in terms of money. 

Increase in economic welfare by rise in national income can be clarified from the following points :

(i) Employment and development : Opportunities of employment increase due to rise in national income which increases effective demand. It increases the income of citizens which makes them capable to fulfil their needs. It increases economic welfare.

(ii) Effect of distribution of income : If the distribution of income is equitable in the country, the economic welfare increases, and unequal distribution of income reduces economic welfare.

(iii) Indicator of national prospertiy : Rise in national income is an indicator of national prosperity because it increases the purchasing power of citizens so that they can buy more goods which raises thier living standard.

(iv) Ways to spend the income : Economic welfare depends upon the way of spending income. If people spend most of their income on luxurious goods, then economic welfare reduces.

(v) Effects on environment: If the increased national income is spent on new goods, it has adverse affects on environment because pollution increases and it also adversely affects public health. Thus, economic welfare starts declining.

Following are the components of income method of calculating national income –

1. Compensation of employees (wages, salaries)
2. Operating surplus (rent, interest, profit)
3. Mixed income
4. Net factor income from abroad.

Equitable distribution of national income increases economic welfare.

There is a close relationship between national income and economic welfare. Generally, both are directly related which means, when national income increases, economic welfare also increases, and vise versa. Distribution of national income also affects economic welfare. An equitable distribution of national income increases economic welfare, whereas an inequitable distribution lowers economic welfare.

(a) Factor income is considered

(b) Deducting environmental loss from national income

(c) Loss of environment

Green accounting is a type of accounting that attempts to factor environmental costs in the financial result of operations.

(b) Increases economic welfare

The white fat stores nutrients while the brown fat warms the body. The student feels that she may bring down her weight by converting brown fat to white fat.

The knee cartilage is an important connective tissue. Since the knee moves during locomotion, a quick, uneventful recovery cannot take place. Complete rest to the knee joint is necessary.

(d) Ciliated epithelium

Group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related functions are called tissues.

I am viewing the skeletal muscle.

• Compound epithelium is made up of multilayered cells.
• These protect organs against chemical and mechanical stresses.
• These cover the dry surface of the skin, moist surface of the buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and pancreatic ducts.

The white adipose tissue is called white fat. The adipose that has abundant mitochondria is called Brown fat.

The study of tissues is known as Histology.

Blood is considered as a typical connective tissue because it is the fluid connective tissue containing plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets. It functions as the transport medium for the cardiovascular system carrying nutrients, nitrogenous wastes and respiratory gases throughout the body.

All cells of epithelia are held together with little intercellular material forming specialized junctions. These provide structural and functional links between the cells. Three types of cell junctions, tight, adhering and gap junctions are found in animal tissues.

Tight junctions help to stop substances from leaking across the tissue. Adhering junctions cement the neighbouring cells together. Gap junctions facilitate the transfer of ions, small and big molecules between the adjoining cells by connecting the cytoplasm of these cells.

Epithelial tissue is sheet of cells that covers the body surface or lines the body cavity.

• Simple epithelium is single layered.
• Squamous epithelium is made of flattened cells with irregular boundaries.
• Columnar epithelium is made of column like cells with round to oval nuclei at the base.
• Ciliated epithelium has ciilia at the free end. 
• Compound epithelium is made of multilayered cells.

The Areolar connective tissue is damaged when finger gets cut.

(c) Monocytes Secrete heparin

The simple epithelia are better at absorption, secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances.

(a) (P – iii), (Q – iv), (R – i), (S – ii)

(d) Perichondrium

(b) Stratified epithelium

The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is national selection. The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to life cycle or life span. Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within hours.

Correct answer is (A) Polymerase 

The Correct option is C. ELISA

(B) Transcription

C. Taq Polymerase

Correct Answer is: (D) DNA amplification

• PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a method to analyze a short sequence of DNA (or RNA) even in samples containing only minute quantities of DNA or RNA. 

• PCR is used to reproduce (amplify) selected sections of DNA or RNA. 

• PCR is highly efficient in that untold numbers of copies can be made of the DNA.

The, trials and tribulation's author talks about are the hardship and torments people had to suffer when they raise their voice against the injustice and discrimination.

1. A cement tub is to be constructed to a height of 2’A feet and the breadth 3 feet. 

2. Put the Bio-wastes in the cement tub with 5 cm height. 

3. Add few earthworms with the Bio-waste. 

4. Then add saw dust, or coir waste and husk on the top of Bio-wastes. 

5. Then add sand to form a layer of 3 cm. 

6. Then add garden waste on the layer of sand. 

7. Then spray with water.

8. All layers must be moistioned with water. 

9. After 10 to 15 days, we get vermicompost manure.

Benefits: 

1. It is rich in all essential nutrients. 

2. It improves soil structure, texture and prevent soil corrosion.

3. It contains valuable hormones like auxons, gibberellin etc. 

4. It neutralizes the soil protection.

Bone marrow transplant/enzyme replacement therapy/gene therapy.