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The order in which the statements are executed may differ from the order in which they are written in the algorithm. This order of execution of statements is known as the control flow.

(a) G. Polya

1. Data 

2. Variables 

3. Control flow 

4. Functions

(c) Variable

The data stored in a variable is also known as the value of the variable. We can store a value in a variable or change the value of variable, using an assignment statement.

In iterative control flow, a condition of the state is tested, and if the condition is true, a statement is executed. The two steps of testing the condition and executing the statement are repeated until the condition becomes false.

There are three different types of chameleons:

red chameleons, green chameleons, and blue chameleons.

The state of a process can be represented by a set of variables in an algorithm. The State at any point of execution is simply the values of the variables at that point.

(d) to establish the input output relation

We divide the main algorithm into functions. We construct each function independently of the main algorithm and other functions. Finally, we construct the main algorithm using the functions. When we use the functions, it is enough to know the specification of the function. It is not necessary to know how the function is implemented.

In alternative control flow, a condition of the state is tested, and if the condition is true, one statement is executed; if the condition is false, an alternative statement is executed.

1. Specification

2. Abstraction

3. Composition

4. Decomposition

(c) Cooking a dish

(b) Algorithm

Algorithm:

• Algorithm is for human readers to understand. 
• Knowledge of English is needed.
• Easy to understand.

Program:

• Program is for the computers to execute directly.
• Knowledge of programming language is required.
• It is difficult to understand.

Fishing is not a security element involved in E-Commerce.

(d) decomposition

In refinement, each statement is repeatedly expanded into more detailed statements in the subsequent levels

(b) Network Flood

(a) Friendly Fraud

(a) monochromatize (a, b, c)

(b) Clean fraud

1. Enter A,B 

2. Initialise Q = 0, r = A 

3. If r > B, then do Q = Q + 1; r = r – B else r, q 

4. Exit

Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) was developed in 1996

Typopiracy:

Typopiracy is a variant of Cyber Squatting. Some fake websites try to take advantage of users’ common typographical errors in typing a website address and direct users to a different website.

Such people try to take advantage of some popular websites to generate accidental traffic for their websites, 

e.g. www.goggle.com,www.faceblook.com

(a) I, II-both True

(c) Triangulation Fraud

(d) all of these

1. Minimum (a,b)

2. --a,b

3. if a < b

4. result : = a

5. else

6.  result : = b

7. -- result = a ↓ b

PGP was developed in 1991

Specifications:

1. circulate 

2. – – inputs: a, b, c: = A, B, C

3. – – outputs: a, b, c: = C, A, B

Algorithm:

1. circulate (a, b, c)

2. – – a, b, c: = A, B, C 

3. temp : = c

4. c : = b

5. b : = a

6. a : = temp

7. – – a, b, c: = C, A, B

Disadvantages of flowcharts:

1. Flowcharts are less compact than representation of algorithms in programming language or pseudo code.

2. They obscure the basic hierarchical structure of the algorithms.

3. Alternative statements and loops are disciplined control flow structures.

3-D Secure, a protocol was developed by Visa

(a) Secure Electronic Transaction (SET)

(d) information leakage

Secure Sockets Layers:

The most common Cryptographic protocol is Secure Sockets Layers (SSL). SSL is a hybrid encryption protocol for securing transactions over the Internet. The SSL standard was developed by Netscape in collaboration with MasterCard, Bank of America, MCI and Silicon Graphics.

It is based on a public key cryptography process to ensure the security of data transmission over the internet. Its principle is to establish a secure communication channel (encrypted) between a client and a server after an authentication step.

The SSL system acts as an additional layer, to ensure the security of data, located between the application layer and the transport layer in TCP.

For example, a user using an internet browser to connect to an SSL secured E-Commerce site will send encrypted data without any more necessary manipulations. Secure Sockets Layers (SSL) was renamed as Transport Layer Security (TLS) in 2001. But still it is popularly known under the name SSL. TLS differs from SSL in the generation of symmetric keys.

Today, all browsers in the market support SSL, and most of the secure communications are proceeded through this protocol. SSL works completely hidden for the user, who does not have to intervene in the protocol. The only thing the user has to do is make sure the URL starts with https:// instead of http:// where the “s” obviously means secured. It is also preceded by a green padlock.

(c) Phil Zimmermann

Decomposition is one of the elementary problem-solving techniques. An algorithm may be broken into parts, expressing only high level details. Then, each part may be refined into smaller parts, expressing finer details or each part may be abstracted as a function.

divide (A, B)

– – inputs: A is an integer and B ≠ 0

– – Outputs: q and r such that A = q x B + r and 0 < r < B

q : = 0, A

While r ≥ B

q, r : = q + 1, r – B

(b) Master card

(b) Diamond boxes – Output

1. Certification Authority

2. X.509 and PGP

1. Security

2. Viruses

A digital signature is created DSS

Digital certificates are issued by CA

It will be executed only when the condition statement is true.

(a) (i) -4 (ii)  – 1 (iii) – 2 (iv) – 3

1. The Acquirer Domain 

2. The Issuer Domain 

3. The interoperability Domain

An Ethical issue is a problem or issue that requires a person or organization to choose between alternatives that must be evaluated as ethical) or wrong (unethical). These issues must, be addressed and resolved to have a positive influence in society.

Some of the common ethical issues are listed below:

1. Cyber crime

2. Software Piracy

3. Unauthorized Access

4. Hacking

5. Use of computers to commit fraud

6. Sabotage in the form of viruses

(b) Typopiracy