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Challenges before the railway: In spite of several efforts, railway faces number of challenges like:

1. The modern technology is still insufficient.
2. Facilities are insufficient compared to its demand.
3. Shortage of finance and administrative problems.
4. Regional imbalance in the development of railway, etc.

Focus on renewable sources of energy:

• The government is consistently making efforts to spread the use of solar power. It is encouraging people to use solar power by giving several types of subsidies for purchasing solar cooker, solar geyser, installing roof-top solar plants, etc.
• Government is also encouraging other renewable sources such as hydro power and wind power (through windmills) since these sources also do not cause pollution. Moreover, it is quite test to produce energy through these sources.

Use of electricity:

India uses majority of electricity for

1. Agriculture,
2. Industries,
3. Household,
4. Transportation and
5. Others.

Use of electricity by different sectors (in percentage)

Poverty and unemployment are mutually related. Due to urbanization, industry and service sector creates large scale employment in cities which reduces poverty. Even rural poor and unemployed people who come to urban areas get employment which reduces poverty.

1. Increase in infrastructural facilities,
2. Reduction in poverty,
3. Cultural development,
4. Ultra-modern health facilities,
5. Social effects-modern thinking and
6. High standard of living.

1. Income inequalities,
2. Social inequalities,
3. Problem of slum-dwelling,
4. Problem of law and order
5. Question of infrastructural facilities and
6. Problems, of environmental pollution.

Electricity can be produced irrthe following ways:

(A) Thermal power – Through coal,
(B) Hydro power – Through water,
(C) Nuclear power – Through nuclear energy and
(D) Others – Windmill, biogas, solar energy, etc.

Sources of production:

Owing to its topography and resources, India has following four ways of

producing electricity:

1. Thermal power – Through coal
2. Hydro power – Through water
3. Nuclear power – Through nuclear energy
4. Others – Windmill, biogas, solar energy, etc.

The distribution of power production in the year 2012-13 is shown in table.

Challenges faced by electricity sector:

1. The biggest and the most important challenge that India faces is that the electricity sector is’ not able to fully utilize its production capacity.
2. The second challenge is that the availability of electricity is not enough to meet the requirement of economy which aims to grow at th_ rate of 7-8%.
3. The production of electricity is less than the production capacity.
4. Apart from these problems, improper electricity distribution, wastage of electricity, theft of electricity, etc. are also important challenges faced by the electricity sector.
5. Electricity production is also affected by factors like high cost, frequent power cuts, scarcity of coal, etc.

Migration refers to movement of a person from one place to another place, away from native place either within or outside the country for job, occupation, business or in search of better standard of living on a permanent basis.

Facilities of education, health, banking, , transportation, communication, insurance, electricity, etc.

The financial ability to buy goods and services is known as purchasing power. In other words, purchasing power is the value of a currency expressed in terms of the amount of goods or services that one unit of money can buy.

Owing to several industrial and other policies there has been a continuous rise in urbanization after Indian independence. This has become rapid after the economic reforms of 1991.
The rise can be studied with the help of data given in the table below.

Trends of urbanization in India

Source: Census of India

Conclusion:

• The data shows a steady rise in urbanization since 1961.
• Looking to the data we can say that according to the census of 2011, 31.16% (approximately 32%) which constituted of 37.7 crore people lived in urban areas.

Importance of education:

Education plays a very crucial role in the development of economy. Several importance of education are –

1. When an individual acquires knowledge he becomes eligible for several good opportunities. By grabbing and working on them his standard of living improves.

2. Education improves a person’s ability to exchange ideas and uplift his self-confidence. ,

3. A well-educated person can make profitable decisions. This helps him to create a work-life environment for leading a good and successful life.

4. Education makes a person efficient to utilize the opportunities that are generated in the society through development.

5. Education can improve productivity of factory labourers.

6. Through education one can be provided systematic technological knowledge about a respective field. One can also be educated about modes of financial help available for various business needs. The various methods uf production can be put info use and agricultural productivity can be increased in the field of agriculture.

7. Through effective education, a person’s active participation in social issues can be increased.

8. It is essential to increase and expand education to make a person understand the environmental hazards. This will then help the society at large in creating environmental balance and maintaining soil fertility.

9. Through education awareness can be brought regarding cleanliness and health.

Full form of ONGC Oil and Natural Gas Commission.

1. Increase in infrastructural facilities:

• Due to urbanization, infrastructural facilities like education, health, banking, transportation, communication, insurance, electricity, etc. keep on increasing in the urban areas.
• Development and maintenance of these facilities create more employment opportunities. When people get employment their purchasing power for goods and services increases. This increases demand for goods and services which in turn leads to setting up more industries.
• Thus, the cycle of setting up of more industries
• Creation of more employment opportunities
• Rise in income and rise in purchasing power
• Rise in purchasing power necessitating the setup of new industries. This cycle keeps going on.

2. Reduction in poverty:

Poverty and unemployment are mutually related. Due to urbanization, industry and service sector creates large scale employment in cities which reduces poverty.

Moreover, rural poor and unemployed who come to urban areas get employment according to their capabilities and skills. This also helps in reducing poverty.

3. Cultural development:

Cities have well-developed educational facilities that too for various discipline. People take benefit of these facilities and gain overall development which in turn helps in establishing a rich cultured society.

Libraries with modern amenities, book stalls and various cultural programmes that take place in cities enrich people culturally.

4. Ultra-modern health services:

Rise in urban population demands more and better health-care facilities. Today, we can see number of multispecialty hospitals flourishing in cities like Ahmedabad where ultra-modern treatment is available for every disease at one place.

Along with private hospitals, government and local self-government institutions also set-up hospitals for the benefit of the poor and the middle class. Better health facilities create a positive impact on the health and the productivity of people.

5. Social effects – modern thinking:

Cities have better education, cultural development and modern means of communication. As a result, the thinking of urban population is modern compared to villages.
Migrants from villages quickly adapt themselves to the modern world by having a decent and polite approach.

6. High standard of living:

Urbanization increases the income of people. This combined with the growth and development of modern infrastructural facilities makes the standard of living of people higher as compared to those living in rural areas.

Correct option is (B) Natural gas

(i) Place-based Migration:

(a) Internal Migration: The movement of a person from one place to another place within a country.
(b) International Migration: The movement of a person from one country to another country.

(ii) Reason-based Migration:

(a) Pull factor Migration: Migration from village to a city due to attraction of the lifestyle and modern infrastructural facilities of urban areas.
(b) Push factor Migration: When people living in villages are forced to leave their villages due to lack of business or occupational opportunities and ’ limited educational facilities.

Correct option is (D) All the these

Shortage of infrastructural facilities:

• Facilities in the cities are planned considering its population. Sharp rise in urbanization, hutments and dirty slum dwellings make it difficult for the city administrators to provide enough water, drainage, road, transportation, communication, toilets, education, school, health services, etc. considering the limited resources and budget.
• As a result, serious problems like dirt, filth and life-threatening diseases spread among poor.

• During the British rule in India our industries were not well developed.
• After India became independent, government took several constructive steps
  and adopted policies to boost economic growth via. industrialization. This resulted in rise in urbanization.
• This rise became extremely sharp after the government adopted the economic reforms of liberalizing industries in 1991.
• Under such reforms and policies the government gave various incentives tor industrial development. This also boosted service sector. All this resulted in faster economic development and urbanization.
• Urbanization in the entire world is on the rise due to urbanization. It is estimated that if this growth continues than by 2050 2/3rd of the total world population will be residing in urban areas.

Increase in infrastructural facilities creates more employment opportunities which in turn increases the purchasing power. This increase leads to setting up new industries and provision of more employment leading to economic growth.

Migration:

• Movement of a person from one place to another place, away from native place either within or outside the country for job, occupation, business or in search of better standard of living, on a permanent basis is called migration.
• Migration becomes faster with a faster increase in economic growth. Fast-rising economy encourages people living in lesser developed areas to move and settle at places that may be distant but well developed. They migrate in search of employment and to stabilize their family and attain a higher standard of living.

On the basis of this definition, we can say that migration

1. Is a long term aspect within or outside the country
2. Is for job, occupation, business or for the betterment of living standard.

• According to WHO, Health is just not absence of diseases or physical strength but it is an individuals physical, mental and social well-being.
• Education nurtures the mind while health nurtures the body.

Benefits of good health:

• Rise in productivity .leads to rise in output
• Natural resources can be better utilized and wastage of resources can be stopped.
• Rise in income of labour leads to higher standard of living.

For good health

• balanced diet and
• good medical treatment are necessary.

In 2011, the life expectancy of an average Indian was 63.5 years.

Health situation:

• There is a shortage of specialised treatment in rural areas.
• 15-th of total hospitals in India are situated in rural areas. Due to lack of qualified and specialist doctors, good treatment and timely treatment is not available in rural areas.
• In India, due to lack of nutritional food 50 % of females between the age 15 to 49 years suffer from iron deficiency of which 19% die.
  • According to the World Bank Report, India spends only 4.4 % on health out of the gross domestic product.
  • Government can build a healthy nation by expanding and extending health . services to rural areas.

Correct option is (C) Central Government

Internal migration:

Movement of a person from one place to another within the geographical boundary of q country is known as internal migration.

Example: When a person from Gujarat settles in another state or a city or when a person from any other state or city settles in Gujarat then it is known as internal migration.

The definition of a town or a city was very broad in 1951. By 1961 the definition became narrow.

The following criteria were adopted during the census of 1971,1981,1991 and 2001 to call a place a town or a city:

1. All those areas which are planned/managed by Municipality, Corporation Cantonment Board or Notified Town Area committee.

2. All those areas which fulfill the following three criteria:

(a) 5000 or more people live in that area
(b) 75% or more population is employed in non-agricultural sectors
(c) The density of population is 400 or more per square kilometer

Migration due to attraction (pull factors):

• When a person gets attracted to the life style and modern infrastructural facilities of urban areas and migrates there, it is known as migration due to attraction.
• Since the modern, life-style and infrastructure are pulling (attracting) the person these factors are called pull factors.

Example:

• Migration of people from village to city can be considered as migration due to attraction because compared to villages, the life style, transportation, communication system, education, health services, etc. along with job opportunities and business prospects are much better and more in the cities.
• Migration to other countries owing to above mentioned reasons is called migration due to attraction.

Generally, three types of urbanization take place. They are:

1. In towns and cities, birth rate tends to be higher than the death rate and hence the urban population increases at a higher rate. This is known as natural population growth.
2. Due to the change in the definition of village and town areas, many rural areas have been upgraded and now they fall in the categories of cities. This results in an increase in urban population. This can be seen in cities like Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat, Rajkot, etc.
3. There is large scale migration of people from rural to urban areas which increases the urban population.

Education:

• Education refers to the process of teaching and learning.
• Human capital investment: Investment made for education, training, grooming, research, etc. are called human capital investment.

Benefits of education:

• Improves the standard of living of human beings
• Improves a person’s ability to exchange ideas and uplifts his self-confidence.
• A person can build a congenial atmosphere for leading a good life.
• Makes a person efficient enough to utilize the opportunities generated in the society.
• Productivity of labourers can be increased through training.
• Agricultural productivity can be increased through technological knowledge.
• A person’s active participation in social issues can be increased.
• Enables a society to increase and expand environmental balance.
• Awareness can be brought regarding cleanliness and health.

Present scenario of education:

Stages of education are:

• Primary education: 1 to 5 standards.
• Higher Primary education: 6 to 8 standards.
• Secondary education: 9 and 10 standards.
• Higher secondary education: 11 and 12 standards.
• College or higher education r standard 12 +
• Technical education: After standard 8, education by ITI.
  • The constitution of India has made primary education for children in the age group 6 to 14 years, free and compulsory and its responsibility is assigned to State Government.
  • In 2013 – 14: There were 1.4 million primary schools in India.
    : There were 7.7 million teachers in India.
    : Student teacher ratio was 46:1 in primary education. It was 34: 1 in higher primary education.
    : 69 % of students enrolled in secondary education. It was 25 % in higher secondary education.
  • In 2011: There was 74.04% literacy in India and it was 79.31 % in Gujarat.

Negative effects of urbanization:

1. Income inequalities:

Urbanization creates income inequalities. In urban areas, on one hand’there are intellects who are very highly educated, entrepreneurs and business magnates whose income levels are very high. While on the other hand, there are poor labourers who are illiterates, who do not have any expertise and who do not know anything except physical labour and hence have very low incomes.
Thus, one can witness very large income inequalities in urban areas.

2. Social inequalities:

The rich and the educated class of the urban areas have modern thinking while the uneducated poor class has frank and age-old thinking. Hence, such poor get exploited in urban areas. This creates social inequalities.

3. Problems of slum-dwelling:

Labour class people coming to cities from villages have lower incomes and hence cannot afford to buy pucca house. As a result, they forcibly live in hutments and dirty slums.

4. Problem of law and order:

Uncontrolled urbanization leads to population explosion in urban areas. The per capita vehicle in cities is high and it rises continuously.

• In case when migrants are not able to get proper employment and earn enough income they move to theft, dacoity, etc.
• It becomes extremely difficult for the limited police personnel to control the city properly. The day to day law and order situation looks weak and inefficient. -» In situations like riots and natural calamities, it becomes a very challenging task for them to look after the safety and security of such a large urban population.

5. Question of infrastructural facilities:

There is shortage of transportation, health, roads, shortage of pure drinking water and other such infrastructural facilities. This results in problems of water borne diseases, sanitation, shortage of electricity due to the failure of the local administration system, etc.

6. Problems of environmental pollution:

• Urbanization is the result of industrialization. Uncontrolled growth in industries increases pollution to manifolds.
• This also results in dirt and filth which eventually leads to various diseases. For example, more than 50% of poor population suffers from skin and respiratory diseases in big developed cities.

Petroleum: Petroleum is one of the most important sources of energy. It is a driving force for all vehicles. All modern production depends on the petroleum.

Modernization and industrialization are the key reasons for extremely high demand of petroleum and petroleum products.

Development also boosts transportation. This results in rise in number of private and public vehicles which in turn continuously increases the demand for petroleum.

Petroleum in India:

• Owing to a very large population, fast development and low petroleum reserves, India has to depend heavily on foreign countries for importing petroleum from them.
• In India, oil reserves were first found in Assam.
• Realizing the importance of petroleum for economic development, ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Commission) was set up in 1956. Later, in 1993, government converted into corporation and since then it is known as Oil and

Natural Gas Corporation.

• Through ONGC, the Government has tried hard to produce petroleum products on a large scale from across India.
• In Gujarat, petroleum resources have been discovered in Kadi, Kalol, Ankleshwar, etc.
• ONGC has set-up an off-shore drilling platform at Bombay High near Mumbai to drill petroleum from sea.

Limitations:

• In spite of all these efforts, India’s contribution in petroleum production is just 0.4% of the total world production.
• The present world production and a continuous rise in demand shows that the petroleum reserves will be able to meet the world demand only for limited years. Hence, the countries of the world have seriously started thinking to make use of alternative energy sources. India has also initiated several research programmes to find out alternative means of petroleum.
• India has started using natural gas as an alternative fuel. It is found near the regions of petroleum.
• Natural gas is mainly used in thermal power stations, cooking gas and as . fuel for running vehicles.
• India produces about 0.5% natural gas of the total world production.

A big advantage of natural gas is that does not pollute the environment like petroleum. Hence, government is trying to promote it more and more in vehicles too.

When a person from Gujarat or from any other part of India moves to some other country in search of job, occupation, business or for better standard of living or for permanent settlement or when people from other parts of the country come to India tor settlement on a permanent basis it is known as international migration.

Movement of a person from one country to another is known as international migration.

Example: When a person from Gujarat or from any other part of India moves to some other country in search of job, occupation, business or for better standard of living or for permanent settlement or when people from other parts of the country come to India for settlement on a permanent basis it is known as international migration.

According to Census 2001, the criteria adopted for a town or a city is as follows:

• All those areas where there is Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or Notified Town Area Committee.
• All those area where
  (a) 5000 or more population live
  (b) 75 % or more population are employed in non-agriculture sector
  (c) density Qf population is 400 or more per square kilometre.

• Policy related steps,
• Increasing employment opportunities,
• Strengthen the infrastructural facilities,
• Modernisation of education and health facilities,
• Development of cottage and small-scale industries,
• Development Of basic infrastructural facilities in rural areas,
• Strengthen the administrative system.

Urbanization:

The migration of people from rural areas to urban areas is known as urbanization.

Urbanization is a socio-economic process in which the population gets concentrated or centralized i.e. increases in one area. This eventually converts that area into a town or a city. This concept is also known as centralization of population.

• Natural population growth
• Change in the definition of village and town areas.
• Large-scale migration of people from rural to urban areas.
• In 1961, urban population was 17.97% which increased to 27.86% in 2001 and 31.16% in 2011, that shows speedy process of urbanisation.

Measures to reduce the problems of urbanization:

1. Policy related steps: Government has taken the following policy related measures to reduce the problems of urbanization:

(a) To control .excessive urbanization, the government has put control on setting up industries in those cities where the population is more than 10 lakh.
(b) Government has started encouraging development of small sized towns so that big cities can be stopped from further urbanization.
(c) The Indian Government has adopted policies that can prevent big cities from becoming bigger and at the same time small and medium sized towns of all the towns can also develop.
(d) Indian Government has adopted a policy of developing satellite tower near big cities.

2. Increasing employment opportunities:

• To control the negative effects of urbanization,’ Government has implemented several employment oriented programmes to enhance self-employment opportunities in cities.
• Government aims at maximum spread of these programmes so that the urban poor can take the benefit. This in turn will increase their income and improve their standard of living.

3. Strengthen the infrastructural facilities:

• To ensure that the infrastructural facilities like water, road, transportation, communication system, drainage, sanitation, etc. reach each land every person the government should make its system strong. . .
• To take the infrastructure at a much higher letef the Central Government has implemented a plan to convert some cities into smart cities.
• The government should-make efforts to construct houses for slum dwellers. With this objective the Central Government has initiated various. housing schemes for the poor and middle income group people.

4. Education and health facilities:

• The rich and the affluent people of the cities are easily able to afford the ultra-modern education and health facilities but the poor class are not. This causes negative effects of urbanization. Steps must be taken to reduce this.
• if proper arrangements are rrtade to avail these facilities even to the poor, then the negative effects of urbanization can be minimized.

5. Development of cottage and small scale industries:

Government shoCild also pay good attention for developing subsidiary industries like cottage and small scale industries. This would help in reducing socio-economic inequalities caused due to urbanization.

6. Development of infrastructural facilities in rural areas:

Government should make effort to improve infrastructural facilities such as education, transportation, communication, roads, electricity, irrigation, etc. of smaller towns and cities. Doing so, people will not be forced to migrate to urban areas. This will further reduce the burden on cities and the negative effects of urbanization can be controlled.

7. Strengthen the administrative system:

• To control the problems related to urbanization, the law and order situation should be improved. This requires that the administrative system should be strengthened and inefficiencies in administrative co-ordination should be eliminated.
• Good governance should be put into practice to solve the problems.
• Citizens should be continuously made aware about law and order so that administrators can improve the law and order situation in the city.

Effects of urbanization: At world level, after China, the fastest urbanization is happening in India.
There are two major effects of urbanization. They are:

(A) Positive effects of urbanization and
(B) Negative effects of urbanization

(A) Positive effects of urbanization:

1. Increase in infrastructural facilities:

• Due to urbanization, infrastructural facilities like education, health, banking, transportation, communication, insurance, electricity, etc. keep on increasing in the urban areas.
• Development and maintenance of these facilities create more employment opportunities. When people get employment their purchasing power for goods and services increases. This increases demand for goods and services which in turn leads to setting up more industries.
• Thus, the cycle of setting up of more industries
• Creation of more employment opportunities
• Rise in income and rise in purchasing power
• Rise in purchasing power necessitating the setup of new industries. This cycle keeps going on.

2. Reduction in poverty:

Poverty and unemployment are mutually related. Due to urbanization, industry and service sector creates large scale employment in cities which reduces poverty.
Moreover, rural poor and unemployed who come to urban areas get employment according to their capabilities and skills. This also helps in reducing poverty.

3. Cultural development:

Cities have well-developed educational facilities that too for various discipline. People take benefit of these facilities and gain overall development which in turn helps in establishing a rich cultured society.

Libraries with modern amenities, book stalls and various cultural programmes that take place in cities enrich people culturally.

4. Ultra-modern health services:

Rise in urban population demands more and better health-care facilities. Today, we can see number of multispecialty hospitals flourishing in cities like Ahmedabad where ultra-modern treatment is available for every disease at one place.

Along with private hospitals, government and local self-government institutions also set-up hospitals for the benefit of the poor and the middle class. Better health facilities create a positive impact on the health and the productivity of people.

5. Social effects – modern thinking:

Cities have better education, cultural development and modern means of communication. As a result, the thinking of urban population is modern compared to villages.
Migrants from villages quickly adapt themselves to the modern world by having a decent and polite approach.

6. High standard of living:

Urbanization increases the income of people. This combined with the growth and development of modern infrastructural facilities makes the standard of living of people higher as compared to those living in rural areas.

(B) Negative effects of urbanization:

1. Income inequalities: Urbanization creates income inequalities. In urban areas, on one hand’there are intellects who are very highly educated, entrepreneurs and business magnates whose income levels are very high. While on the other hand, there are poor labourers who are illiterates, who do not have any expertise and who do not know anything except physical labour and hence have very low incomes.
Thus, one can witness very large income inequalities in urban areas.

2. Social inequalities:

The rich and the educated class of the urban areas have modern thinking while the uneducated poor class has frank and age-old thinking. Hence, such poor get exploited in urban areas. This creates social inequalities.

Problems of slum-dwelling:

Labour class people coming to cities from villages have lower incomes and hence cannot afford to buy pucca house. As a result, they forcibly live in hutments and dirty slums.

3. Problem of law and order:

Uncontrolled urbanization leads to population explosion in urban areas. The per capita vehicle in cities is high and it rises continuously.

In case when migrants are not able to get proper employment and earn enough income they move to theft, dacoity, etc.

It becomes extremely difficult for the limited police personnel to control the city properly. The day to day law and order situation looks weak and inefficient. -» In situations like riots and natural calamities, it becomes a very challenging task for them to look after the safety and security of such a large urban population.

5. Question of infrastructural facilities:

There is shortage of transportation, health, roads, shortage of pure drinking water and other such infrastructural facilities. This results in problems of water borne diseases, sanitation, shortage of electricity due to the failure of the local administration system, etc.

6. Problems of environmental pollution:

• Urbanization is the result of industrialization. Uncontrolled growth in industries increases pollution to manifolds.
• This also results in dirt and filth which eventually leads to various diseases. For example, more than 50% of poor population suffers from skin and respiratory diseases in big developed cities.

(a) Employment, occupation and business,
(b) Transfer,
(c) Extant to natural resources,
(d) To attain better quality education, and
(e) To get modern health services

Movement of a person from one country to another is known as international migration.

Economic causes:

1. For employment, occupation and business: A person migrates to another place for employment, occupation and business.

2. Transfer: When a person employed by a company is transferred from one place to another distant place, he is forced to move to that place.

3. Extant of natural resources: When a particular place has abundance of natural resources, but quite less population relatively, people migrate to that place.

Example: Mines of gold and diamond, regions where petroleum is found, oil refineries, etc. are places that require technical staff in a huge number. Hence, people migrate to places like UAE, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, etc. where such opportunities are widely available.

4. To attain better quality education: A person aspiring for better education migrates to places that offers such facilities and later settles their permanently.

5. To get modern health services: When a person does not get required health services in his own region, he forcibly migrates either temporarily or even permanently to places that offers better health facilities.

6. Planned migration: When a family sends one or more persons away from the native place for economic activity to a distant place it is called planned or organized migration.

• • Generally, the migration of people from rural area to urban area is called urbanisation.
• • It is a socio-economic process due to which the population in one area increases and converted into a town or a city.
• • Urbanisation is concentration of population in cities.

There are four main causes for migration. They are:

1. Economic causes,
2. Social causes,
3. Political causes and
4. Environmental causes (Natural calamities)

1. Economic causes:

• For employment, occupation and business: A person migrates to another place for employment, occupation and business.
• Transfer: When a person employed by a company is transferred from one place to another distant place, he is forced to move to that place.
• Extant of natural resources: When a particular place has abundance of natural resources, but quite less population relatively, people migrate to that place.
  Example: Mines of gold and diamond, regions where petroleum is found, oil refineries, etc. are places that require technical staff in a huge number. Hence, people migrate to places like UAE, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, etc. where such opportunities are widely available.
• To attain better quality education: A person aspiring for better education migrates to places that offers such facilities and later settles their permanently.
• To get modern health services: When a person does not get required health services in his own region, he forcibly migrates either temporarily or even permanently to places that offers better health facilities.
• Planned migration: When a family sends one or more persons away from the native place for economic activity to a distant place it is called planned or organized migration.

2. Social causes:

• Marriage: After marriage when a woman leaves her native and migrates to live in a different place with her husband it is called social migration.
• To get respite from social rituals: The social set-up of villages is quite traditional compared to that of cities. Urban societies also have liberal thinking and modern life style. As a result, village youth get attracted to such a lifestyle and like to settle in urban areas.

3. Political reasons:

• War and unrest: A region which is war-prone witnesses several small and big wars time and again. This makes the area unrest and unsafe with unstable employment opportunities.
  Hence, people residing in those areas migrate to safe, peaceful and progressive areas that give ample amount of employment opportunities.
• Avoid friction: People migrate from places where riots and friction takes place frequently to safer and peaceful places.

4. Natural calamities or environmental factors: People tend to migrate to safer places from places where natural calamities such as flood, famine, earthquake, etc. occur frequently.

Developmental migration:

• In order to develop a particular region if people residing in that region are made to migrate to another region it is called developmental migration. For example, lots of people were made to migrate when Gujarat started Sardar Srovar Yojana.
• Similarly, when projects related to National Park or afforestation are executed, people residing in those areas are made to move to different areas.

When people residing in a particular region are made to migrate to another region so that some developmental project can be undertaken at that place.it is known as development based migration. For example, lot of people were made to migrate when Gujarat, started Sardar Srovar Yojana.

Social causes:

1. Marriage: After marriage when a woman leaves her native and migrates to live in a different place with her husband it is called social migration.

2. To get respite from social rituals: The social set-up of villages is quite traditional compared to that of cities. Urban societies also have liberal thinking and modern life style. As a result, village youth get attracted to such a lifestyle and like to settle in urban areas.

At times people who migrate from villages to cities in search of a higher and regular income are unable to get desired job or life style. This leads to extreme poverty and helplessness forcing them to get into antisocial activities like theft and loots which disturbs the social life of cities. 

Natural calamities or environmental factors:

People tend to migrate to safer places from places where natural calamities such as flood, famine, earthquake, etc. occur frequently.

Developmental migration:

• In order to develop a particular region if people residing in that region are made to migrate to another region it is called developmental migration. For example, lots of people were made to migrate when Gujarat started Sardar Srovar Yojana.
• Similarly, when projects related to National Park or afforestation are executed, people residing in those areas are made to move to different areas.

Positive effects of migration:

1. Growth of income: 

• People migrate mainly to either generate or increase their income.
• People moving to cities from villages for livelihood send a major portion of their income to their families. This in turn improves the standard of living of people living in villages.
• People also invest a part of this income in agriculture. This boosts agricultural production and productivity. Thus, agri-business and agro industries also grow with this.

2. Contribution towards a faster economic development:

• When Indians migrate to other countries, they send a part of their earnings to their families.
• They also invest a part of their income in Indian businesses, trading and industries. The investment comes to India in foreign currency. Hence, our foreign exchange, increases which then results in faster economic growth and economic development of our country.
  It should be noted that the migration has rised especially after the new economic reforms of 1991. This has led to greater inflow of foreign exchange in India and faster rise in its economic development.
• Another advantage of migration is that when Indians go abroad for higher education they gain rich experience from the foreign systems and methodologies. When they return they use the same in India and help India develop more.