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In the hierarchy of caste system each caste has a specific place and social status. There has been a close correlation between social or caste status and economic status. The high’ castes were almost invariably of high economic status. On the other hand, the “low’ caste were almost always of low economic status. 

However, in the 19th Century the link between caste and occupation had become less , rigid consequently, the link between caste and economic status is not as rigid today as it used to be.At the macro line things have not changed much. The difference between the privileged a high economic status sections of society and disadvantaged (a low economic status) sections still persists

The key features of social stratification are 

(i)  Social stratification is a characteristics of society, not simply a function of individual differences. It is society-wide system that unequally distributes social resources among categories of people. For example: In the most technologically primitive societies-hunting and gathering societies, little was produced, so only rudimentary social stratification could exist. In more technologically advanced societies, where people produce a surplus over and above their basic needs, however, social resources are unequally distributed to various social categories regardless of people’s innate individual abilities. 

(ii)  Social stratification persists over generations: It is closely linked to the family and to the inheritance of social resources from one generation to the next. A person’s social position is ascribed, i.e., a child assumes the social position of its parents. Births dictate occupation e.g. a Dalit is likely to ‘ be confined to traditional occupation such as agricultural labours, scavenging or leather work, with little chance of being able to get high paying white-collar or professional work. The ascribed aspect of social inequality is reinforced by the practice of endogamy, i.e., marriage is usually restricted to members of the same caste, ruling out the potential for breaking caste line through intercaste marriages. 

(iii)  Social stratification is supported by patterns of beliefs and ideology: No system of social stratification is likely to persist over generations unless it is widely viewed as being either fair or inevitable. For example, Caste system is justified in terms of the opposition of purity and pollution, with Brahmans designated as the most superior and Dalits as the most inferior by virtue of their birth and occupation. Not everyone, thinks of a system of inequality as legitimate. Typically, people with the greatest social privileges express the strongest support, while those who have experienced exploitation and humiliation of being at the bottom of the hierarchy are most likely to challenge it.

Discrimination is definitely a feature of social inequality and seclusion Prejudices talk about biased opinions and attitudes. But discrimination shows one’s behavior towards people of another class or group, or an individual.

Denying opportunities because of Jati, religion, or gender can be considered discrimination. Denying a job because of gender is discrimination. Discrimination is difficult to prove. Very often discrimination is cleverly hidden behind other reasonable explanations. For example, if a person is refused to be appointed to a post because of his Jati, nobody will tell him that he was rejected because of his Jati. He will be told that he is unfit for the job because of some other reasons.

Individual inequality refers to destructiveness and variations among individuals in their psychological and physical characteristics. Social inequality refers to a social system where some people are getting opportunity to make use of the resources and others are not. Some people are at a higher level in terms of wealth, education, health and status while others are at the lowest level. 

Social inequality gets manifested in following forms:

(i)  Social stratification (ii)  Prejudices

(iii)  Stereotypes (iv)  Discrimination

• States try to establish their political legitimacy through nation-building strategies. 

• They sought to secure the loyalty and obedience of their citizens through policies of assimilation or integration. 

• This is because most states have generally been suspicious of cultural diversity and have tried to reduce or eliminate it. The states fear that the recognition of varied culturally diverse identities such as language, ethnicity, religion will lead to social fragmentation and prevent the creation of a harmonious society. 

• Also, apart from the fear of fragmentation, accommodating these differences is politically challenging. 

• Thus so many states have resorted to either suppressing these identities or ignoring them in the political domain.

• Civil society is the name given to the arena which lies beyond the private domain of the family, but outside the domain of both state and market.

• Civil society is a non-state and non-market part of the public domain in which individuals get together voluntarily to create institutions and organisations.

• It is a sphere of active citizenship: individuals take up social issues, try to influence the state or make demands on it, pursue their collective interests or seek support for a variety of causes.

• It consists of voluntary institutions formed by group of citizens. It includes political parties; media institutions, trade unions, NGOs, religious organisations and other kinds of collective entities.

• The main criteria for inclusion in civil society are that the organisation should not be state controlled, and it should not be purely profit making entity.

• Examples-Doordarshan is not a civil society entity though private television channels are. The Indian people had an encounter with authoritarian rule during ‘Emergency’ enforced between June 1975 and 1977. Forced sterilisation programmes; censorship on media and government officials; civil liberties revoked.

Civil Society Today

• Today the activists of civil society organizations have a wide range of issues including advocacy and lobbying activity with national and international agencies as well as active participation in various movements.

• The issues taken jip range from tribal struggles for land rights; devolution of urban governance; campaigns against rape and violence against women, primary education reform, etc.

• Media, also, has started to play an important role in the civil society initiatives.

• Example-the Right to Information. Beginning with an agitation in rural Rajasthan for the release of information on government funds spent on village development, this effort grew into a nation-wide campaign. Despite opposition from the bureaucracy. Government was forced to respond to the campaign and pass a new law formally acknowledging citizens’ right to information.

• A nation is a peculiar sort of community that is easy to describe but hard to define. 

• We can describe many nations founded on the basis of common cultural, historical institutions like a shared religion, language, ethnicity, history or regional culture. 

• But it is hard to come up with any defining features for nation. 

• For every possible criterion there are exceptions and counter examples. 

• For example-there are many nations that do not share a common language, religion, ethnicity and so on. On the other hand, there are many languages, religions or ethnicities that are shared across nations. But this does not lead to the transformation of a single unified nation. Nation at the simplest level, is a community of communities. Members of a nation share the desire to be a part of the same political collectivity. Nations are communities that have a state of their own. 

• In modem times, there has been a one-to-one bond between nation and state. But this development is new. 

• It wasn’t true of the past that a single state could represent a single nation or every nation must have its own state. 

• For example, Soviet Union explicitly recognized that the peoples it governed were of different nations. 

• Also, people constituting a nation may actually be citizens or residents of different states. There are more Jamaicans living outside Jamaica than in Jamaica. 

• Dual citizenship could, also, be a possibility. These laws allow citizens of a particular state to also simultaneously be citizens of another state. Example, Jewish AmericansMnay be citizens of Israel as well as the USA.

• Thus, nation is a community that has been able to acquire a state of its own. It‘s, also seen that states are finding it more and more necessary to claim that they represent a nation. 

• A feature of the modem era is the establishment of democracy and nationalism as dominant sources of political legitimacy. This implies that nation is the most accepted or proper justification for a state, while people are the ultimate source of legitimacy of the nation.

Modern farming methods such as the use of HYV insecticides pesticides etc require a great deal of capital so the farmer needs more money than before.

(i) The medium and large farmers have their own savings from farming. They are thus able to arrange for the capital needed.

(ii) In contrast, the small farmers have to borrow money to arrange for the capital. They borrow from large farmers or the village moneylenders or the traders who supply various inputs for cultivation.

(iii) The rate of interest on such loans is very high. They are put in great distress to repay the loan, which is not so in the case of medium and large farmers.

Correct option is D) 25

This statement is quite correct. Modern farming methods require chemical fertilisers, pesticides and modern farm equipments. All of these are manufactured in industry.

As per estimates, 60% of the villages still need proper irrigation facility. Since land under cultivation cannot be increased to increasing the area under irrigation is a major way to improve farm productivity.

People who work at construction site usually get the minimum wages. An unskilled worker gets around Rs. 250 per day. A skilled worker; such as a mason; get around Rs. 500 per day.

There is more supply of workers than the demand. Due to this, the workers are not in a position to bargain from their employers. Hence, the wages for farm labourers are less than minimum wages.

The government should improve electricity supply in the villages. It should open more schools so that children can grow to become educated adults. Moreover, government can also provide vocational training to the rural youths. These activities would help in increasing non-farm production activities in a village.

Price ratio refers to the price of the product on the X axis divided by the price of the product on Y axis. PR = Px/Py.

If the consumer wants to get additional unit of one product, he has to give up another product to be in same level of satisfaction. Here, when the consumer sacrifices lesser and lesser units of other commodity, the substitution between two goods will be decreasing and hence the MRS diminishes.

It is a group of Indifference curves for two commodities showing different levels of satisfaction.

MRS means that as the amount of a commodity with the consumer goes on increasing he is prepared to exchange the other commodity for equal units of the commodity whose amount increasing.

D = 10 - 3P

Since P = \(\frac{5}{3}\) , we get

D = 10 - 3 x \(\frac{5}{3}\) = 10 - 5 = 5

Ed = \(\frac{ΔQ}{ΔP}\) = \(\frac{5}{5/3}\) = \(5\times\frac{3}{5}\) = \(\frac{15}{5}\) = 3

Elasticity is = 3

(b) Price of other commodities

When a rational consumer always prefers more of the product which gives him higher level of satisfaction, it is called Monotonic Preferences.

P₁ , P₂, M is a budget constraint.

Consumer prefers the bundle (15,15) over the other bundles.

Seasonal Unemployment:

1. This type of unemployment occurs during certain seasons of the year. 

2. In agriculture and agro based industries like sugar,production activities are carried out only in some seasons. 

3. These industries offer employment only during that season in a year. Therefore people may remain unemployed during the off season.

4. Seasonal unemployment happens from demand side also; for example ice cream industry, holiday resorts etc.

Frictional Unemployment (Temporary Unemployment): 

1. Frictional unemployment arises due to imbalance between supply of labour and demand for labour.

2. This is because of immobility of labour, lack of necessary skills, break down of machinery, shortage of raw materials etc.

3. The persons who lose jobs and in search of jobs are also included under frictional unemployment.

Educated Unemployment: 

1. Sometimes educated people are underemployed or unemployed when qualification does not match the job.

2. Faulty education system, lack of employable skills, mass student turnout and preference for white collar jobs are highly responsible for educated unemployment in India.

The following are the types of unemployment. 

Types of unemployment:

1. Cyclical Unemployment 

2. Frictional Unemployment 

3. Technical Unemployment 

4. Disguised Unemployment 

5. Seasonal Unemployment 

6. Educated Unemployment 

7. Structural Unemployment

1. Cyclical Unemployment:

1. This unemployment exists during the downturn phase of trade cycle in the economy.

2. In a business cycle during the period of recession and depression, income and output fall leading to widespread unemployment.

3. It is caused by deficiency of effective demand. 

4. Cyclical unemployment can be cured by public investment or expansionary monetary policy.

2. Seasonal Unemployment:

1. This type of unemployment occurs during certain seasons of the year. 

2. In agriculture and agro based industries like sugar, production activities are carried out only in some seasons. 

3. These industries offer employment only during that season in a year. Therefore people may remain unemployed during the off season.

4. Seasonal unemployment happens from demand side also; for example ice cream industry, holiday resorts etc.

3. Frictional Unemployment (Temporary Unemployment):

1. Frictional unemployment arises due to imbalance between supply of labour and demand for labour. 

2. This is because of immobility of labour, lack of necessary skills, break down of machinery, shortage of raw materials etc.

3. The persons who lose jobs and in search of jobs are also included under frictional unemployment.

4. Educated Unemployment: 

1. Sometimes educated people are underemployed or unemployed when qualification does not match the job. 

2. Faulty education system, lack of employable skills, mass student turnout and preference for white collar jobs are highly responsible for educated unemployment in India.

5. Technical Unemployment:

1. Modem technology being capital intensive requires less labourers and contributes to technological unemployment. 

2. Now a days, invention and innovations lead to the adoption of new techniques there by the existing workers are retrenched. 

3. Labour saving devices are responsible for technological unemployment.

6. Structural Unemployment:

1. Structural unemployment is due to drastic change in the structure of the society.

2. Lack of demand for the product or shift in demand to other products cause this type of unemployment. 

3. For example rise in demand for mobile phones has adversely affected the demand for cameras, tape recorders etc.

4. So this kind of unemployment results from massive and deep rooted changes in economic structure.

7. Disguised Unemployment:

1. Disguised unemployment occurs when more people are than what is actually required. 

2. Even if some workers are withdrawn, production does not suffer. 

3. This type of unemployment is found in agriculture. 

4. A person is said to be disguisedly by unemployed if his contribution to output is less than what he can produce by working for normal hours per day. 

5. In this situation, marginal productivity of labour is zero or less or negative.

It is locus of different combinations of the two goods which the consumer consumes and whose price exactly equals his income.

1. Fall in price of good 1 

2. A rise in income or fall in prices of both good 1 & good 2.

P₁X₁+ P₂ X₂ = 1000

30 x 20 + P₂ x 40 = 1000

600 + 40P₂ = 1000

40P₂ = 1000 - 600 = 400

P₂ = \(\frac{400}{40}\) = 10

Aggregate demand has the following four components: 

1. Consumption demand 

2. Investment demand 

3. Government expenditure and 

4. Net Export (export – import)

Comparison of Classicism and Keynesianism Keynesianism:

1. Short – run equilibrium Saving is a vice 

2. The function of money is a medium of exchange on the one side and a store of value on the other side.

3. Macro approach to national problems 

4. State intervention is advocated

Classicism:

1. Long – run equilibrium 

2. Saving is a social virtue 

3. The function of money is to act as a medium of exchange. 

4. Micro foundation to macro problems 

5. Champions of Laissez – fair policy

It is collection of all bundles of products available to a consumer at the existing market price . at a given level of income.

1. Aggregate supply function is an increasing function of the level of employment. 

2. Aggregate supply refers to the value of total output of goods and services produced in an economy in a year. 

3. In other words, aggregate supply is equal to the value of national product, i.e., national income. 

4. Aggregate Supply = C + S + T + Rf =Aggregate income generated in the economy.

5. The following figure shows the shape of the two aggregate supply curves drawn for the assumption of fixed money wages and variable wages.

Aggregate Supply Curve

1. Z curve is linear where money wages remains fixed; Z₁ curve is non – linear since wage rate increases with employment. 

2. When full employment level of Nf is reached it is impossible to increase output by employing more men.

3. So aggregate supply curve becomes inelastic (Vertical straight line). 

4. The slope of the aggregate supply curve depends on the relation between the employment and productivity. 

5. Based upon this relation, the aggregate supply curve can be expected to slope upwards. 

6. In reality the aggregate supply curve will be like Z₁

7. Therefore, the aggregate supply depends on the relationship between price and wages.

Correct Answer is: (c) Iran

Correct Answer is: (b) India

1. Seventh 

2. Telangana 

3. Lakshadweep 

4. New or young fold mountains

India is located in the north-eastern hemisphere, extending between 8°4′ N to 37°6′ North Latitudes from south to North and between 68°7′ to 97°25′ E longitude from West to East.

Gangetic plain is formed of new alluvial soils brought down by Himalayan rivers. It is the most fertile part of India. In India most of the agriculture is done on this plain. Hence, it is called the granary of India.

(c) Barren Island

Correct Answer is: (b) Triangular

Indian subcontinent is geographically a special region of Asian continent. Its geographical location and structure has given it a special monsoon climate. Due to this reason it is also called monsoon region.

(c) (i) is true but (ii) is false

Correct Answer is: (d) Telangana

(b) investment

(a) Both (i) and (ii) are true

(a) Aggregate supply function

(a) Both (i) and (ii) are true

Correct Answer is: (c) Keynes

1. Utility is different from satisfaction. 

2. Utility is not usefulness always. 

3. Utility does not speak about moral principles. 

4. Utility is subjective.