Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

Correct option is (a) 1 and 4

(c) During the period of Pallavas, total five chariot temples were built here.

Gharapuri is a village in Arabian Sea, 12 km away from Mumbai in Maharashtra. Elephanta Caves are situated on a small island near this village. Locally, ‘Gharapuri’ means city of caves. So, Local people also call Elephanta Caves as Gharapuri.

Mahabalipuram: It is a small city located at 60 km from Chennai in Tamil Nadu. Mahabalipuram lies on the coast and faces the Bay of Bengal. This city is famous for its splendid temple architecture and seashore. Narsinh Varman-I, the King of Pallava dynasty, gave this town the name of Mahabalipuram. People gave the king the title of ‘Mahamalla’ which means a great wrestler. Seven temples were built here. Out of them two temples submerged in the sea. Hence, today only five chariot temples exist. The temples contain an amazing figure of Lord Vishnu in smiling pose. Besides, there is also an idol of Goddess Durga slaying Mahisasura. It is worth knowing that Mahabalipuram was also a famous ancient harbour.

Following were the four main provisions of the Treaty of Bhairowal :

1. The administration of Lahore was entrusted to a body of eight Sikh Sardars who were the supporters of the English. They were to carry on this duty till the maturity of Maharaja Dalip Singh.
2. The Governor-General appointed a British Resident at Lahore.
3. The Council of Regency was to work according to the advice of the British Resident.
4. Rani Jindan was ousted from the Punjab. She was given a pension of one lakh rupees annually.

The Treaty of Bhairowal deprived Rani Jindan of her political rights. She was ousted from the Lahore Darbar. She was arrested and sent to Sheikhupura. She was first given a pension of 1,50,000 rupees annually. It was reduced from 1,50,000 to 48,000 rupees annually. Thereafter, she was exiled to Benaras. Thus she was badly treated by the English. As a result, the Sikhs were annoyed and rose against the English.

According to the Treaty of Lahore, a contingent of British forces was kept at Lahore for the protection of the Maharaja and the citizens of Lahore. But with the passage of time, Lord Hardinge planned to keep the English troops at Lahore. Maharani Jindan agreed to it. So a meeting of the Sardars and the Ministers of the Lahore Darbar was called, In it, only those terms of the Governor-General were announced on the basis of which the ministers of the Darbar agreed to keep the English troops at Lahore even after 1846 A.D. Thus the British entered into another treaty with the Sikhs on December 12, 1846 A.D. This treaty is known as the Treaty of Bhairowal.

The Treaty of Bhairowal has great importance in the history of the Punjab and India.

1. By this treaty, the British became the real masters of Punjab. The British Resident was given unlimited powers. Henry Lawrence was appointed as the first British Resident at Lahore.
2. According to this treaty, Rani Jindan was ousted from Lahore. She was first interned at Sheikhupura and then sent to Benaras.

Rani Jindan and Lai Singh, being afraid of the Sikh army, wanted to engage it in a war against the British.

Mudki, Ferozeshah, Aliwal and Sabraon.

According to the Treaty of Lahore, the English army was to withdraw from the Punjab after December, 1846 A.D., but in view of the troubled conditions of the Punjab and being afraid of the Sikh army, many Sikhs and people of other classes did not want that the English should withdraw from the Punjab. So, another treaty was signed between the English and the Sikhs on December 16, 1846 A.D. which is called the Treaty of Bhairowal. This treaty was signed with the English by Maharani Jindan and the ruler of the Lahore Darbar.

Following were its main terms :

1. The administration of Lahore was entrusted to a council of eight Sikh Sardars who supported the English. They were to carry on this duty till Maharaja Dalip Singh was a minor.
2. The Governor-General appointed a British Resident as the head of this Council.
3. The Council of Regency was to work on the advice of the British Resident.
4. Rani Jindan was ousted from Lahore. She was given a pension of 112 lakh rupees annually.
5. For the protection of the Maharaja, and the establishment of law and order, the British forces would stay in Lahore.
6. The Lahore Darbar would pay Rs. 22 Lakhs a year to meet the expenses of the British forces which would continue staying in Lahore.
7. Besides at Lahore, the British troops could be stationed in Sikh fortresses, the occupation of which the Governor-General might feel necessary for the protection of the Maharaja’s interests.
8. The terms of this treaty would be considered valid till Maharaja Dalip Singh was a minor.

Importance: The Treaty of Bhairowal has great importance in the history of the Punjab and India

• With this treaty, the English became the real masters of the Punjab. The British Resident was given unlimited powers. Henry Lawrence was appointed as the first British Resident at Lahore.
• According to this treaty, Rani Jindan was ousted from Lahore. She was first interned at Sheikhupura and then sent to Benaras.

Punjab was annexed to the British Indian Empire on 29 March, 1849 A.D.

The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought in 1845-46. Following were its causes :

1. The British policy of Encirclement of the Lahore Kingdom: Ever since the time of Ranjit Singh, the British were making schemes for the conquest of the Punjab. They had built cantonments around the Sikh kindgom. Politically and diplomatically, they had half encircled the Sikh kingdom. They had already occupied Ferozepur and established a military cantonment there. They had brought Sindh and Shikarpur under their sphere of influence. After Ranjit. Singh’s death, their dream of conquering Punjab acquired more clear and definite shape. Naturally, such designs of the British alarmed the Sikh army in particular and the people of the Punjab in general.

2. Anarchy in the Punjab: Soon after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839 A.D., there prevailed anarchy in the Punjab and within a span of about four years, many of his sons and relatives were put to sword. Now the Khalsa army was all powerful and it became a problem for the Lahore Durbar to keep it under control. With the army being all in all, nobody’s life was safe. All the important chiefs and courtiers were afraid of the Khalsa army. It was in their best interest to engage the army in some war so as to weaken its power.

3. Defeat of the British in the First Afghan War: In the First Afghan War, the English fought with Afghanistan from 1839 to 1842 A.D. The English suffered a defeat. This encouraged the Sikhs to wage a war against the British. They had begun to think that the English were not invincible. If the Afghans could teach them a lesson, why not the Sikhs who had humiliated the Afghans in the times of Ranjit Singh.

4. Annexation of Sindh to the British Empire: The British annexed Sindh to their Empire in 1843 A.D. This incident brought the imperialistic designs of the English in the limelight. It was clear that the English would now try to annex the Punjab. It was difficult for the English to maintain their control over Sindh unless they annexed the Punjab too.

The annexation of Sindh brought their aggressive designs to the forefront and the Sikhs naturally became suspicious of the English.

5. Ellenborough’s plan to capture Punjab: The British, in fact, had been planning to occupy the Punjab much before their war with the Sikhs actually began. After the annexation of Sindh to the British Empire, Lord Ellenborough planned to capture the Punjab. To materialise this plan, the English began to make elaborate military preparations. When the Sikhs came to know about the intentions of the British, the Sikhs also began to make preparations for War.

6. Military Activities of the British: The prevailing anarchy in the Punjab encouraged the English to start making elaborate military preparations. They began to station their army men in large numbers near the Sutlej.

It is said that on the boundaries of the Sutlej in 1836 A.D., there were only 2500 British soldiers. Their number rose to 14,000 in 1843. Besides this, the English had stationed a large number of their troops at Ferozepur, Ludhiana and Ambala. Not only that, the English had begun to collect boats to cross the Sutlej. All these activities of the English made the Sikhs more suspicious and they began to feel that the English wanted to grab the Punjab.

7. The dispute over the treasure of Suchet Singh: Dogra Sardar Suchet Singh was in the service of Lahore Darbar. At the time of his death, he was at Ferozepur. He left behind fifteen lakh rupees there. Because he had no issue, the Lahore Darbar claimed its right on this amount. But the English Government wanted to bring this matter to the court. At this the Sikhs rose in revolt against the English.

8. Dispute over Mauran Village: Dhanna Singh, a native of the village Mauran situated in the Nabha State, was in the service of Maharaja Ranjit Singh; who being pleased with him, wrote to Jaswant Singh the Raja of Nabha to grant him the village Mauran as Jagir. In return, the Maharaja granted him a number of villages for life to Jaswant Singh’s sister. After the death of Dhanna Singh, his son Hukam Singh succeeded him. But Devinder Singh, the new ruler of Nabha, sent his troops to the village and seized Hukam Singh’s property worth about two lakh rupees and occupied the village. The Lahore Darbar demanded the restoration of the village. But the English Government rejected the claim of the Lahore Darbar and said that Jaswant Singh’s grant to Dhanna Singh had been illegal.

9. Provocation of Major Broadfoot: The appointment of Major Broadfoot as the British Resident at Ludhiana in place of Mr. Clark added fuel to the fire. He was hard-headed and hot-tempered. Immediately after taking charge of his post, he declared that Maharaja Dalip Singh’s territories South of the Sutlej would be considered under British rule. This declaration aroused the anger of the Sikh chiefs beyond limit and they began to feel that a war with the British was unavoidable.

10. Plans of Lai Singh and Rani Jindan: Lai Singh and Rani Jindan planned to incite the Sikh army against the British. They made the Sikh army to think that the British were determined to capture Punjab after occupying Sindh.

11. Immediate Cause: Crossing of the Sutlej by the Sikhs. The excited Sikh forces made up their mind to settle their scores with the British. Thus, between December 11 and 14 in 1846 A.D., the Sikh soldiers in large numbers began to cross the Sutlej river. The English were already waiting for the Sikhs to first begin the war. As soon as the Governor-General Lord Hardinge got the information that the Sikh forces had crossed the Sutlej, he also declared a regular war against the Sikhs on December 18, 1845 A.D.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War was fought in 1848-49. The English came out victorious in it. As a result, the Punjab was annexed to the British Empire.

Following were the main causes of this war: 

1. Restlessness of the Sikh Soldiers: The Sikh soldiers had to suffer a defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War. But they knew it well that their defeat was not because they were in any way weaker than the English soldiers but it was due to the treachery of their commanders. Now they wanted to wipe off that disgrace by fighting another war with the English.

2. British Policy of Speedy Reforms: In order to increase their influence in the Punjab, the English, especially Henry Lawrence, the English Resident at Lahore, tried to bring about some social reforms. Laws were framed one after other to end the practice of Sati, to ban the killing of female children and to effect changes in the Zamindari system. Although these reforms were desirable, yet they were brought about in such a haste that the people took them as an undue interference in their religious and social life.

3. Harsh Treatment with Lai Singh and Rani Jindan: The harsh treatment which the English meted out to Rani Jindan enraged the Sikhs. Their anger further increased when the Queen Mother, Rani Jindan was dubbed as a conspirator. She was first sent to Sheikhupura and then exiled to Benaras. The pension of Rani Jindan was reduced from Rs. 1^ lakhs to 48,000 rupees in the first instance and then to? 12,000 annually. Besides, the English also meted out a harsh treatment to the Prime Minister Lai Singh. Such a treatment with Rani Jindan and Lai Singh was too much for the Sikhs to tolerate. So once again, they were forced to take up arms against the English to safeguard their rights.

4. Appointment of British Officers on High Posts: According to the Treaty of Bhairowal, the real powers of the Lahore Kingdom had come in the hands of the English. So they began to appoint English officers on high posts. The Sikh chiefs took this policy of the English as an insult to them. They wanted to free the Punjab from the English yoke.

5. Reduction in the number of Sikh Soldiers: The number of men in the Sikh army ran into lakhs but according to the Treaty of Lahore, their number was reduced to 20 thousand infantry and 12 thousand horsemen. Thus, thousands of soldiers who were disbanded became opponents of the English. Not only this, those soldiers who were kept in service were to be paid lesser salaries. Thus the entire fchalsa army turned against the British. It was filled with anger and began to prepare for another showdown.

6. Revolt of Diwan Mulraj of Multan: After the death of his father, Mulraj became the Governor of Multan in 1844 A.D. He used to pay a tribute of Rs. 12 lakhs a year to the Lahore Darbar in lieu of this post. But, after the Treaty of Bhairowal in December 1846 A.D., the English took over the administration of Lahore. They increased this tribute to Rs. 18 lakhs and also asked him to surrender l/3rd of his territory. Mulraj could not tolerate all this injustice. So he expressed his desire to resign. The English quickly appointed Sardar Kahan Singh as the Governor of Multan. Diwan Mulraj handed over the charge of Multan to the new Governor. The soldiers of Diwan’Mulraj rose in revolt against the English and Diwan Mulraj recaptured Multan. This event led to the revolt against the English in the whole of the Punjab.

7. Revolt of Bhai Maharaj Singh: Bhai Maharaj Singh was the follower of Sant Bhai Bir Singh of Naurangabad. He rose in revoltragainst the English to protect the Sarkar-e-Khalsa. So Henry Lawrence, the British Resident, ordered to put him behind the bars. But he could not be arrested. At the request of Mulraj, he alongwith his 400 horsemen marched towards Multan. But he left Mulraj and joined hands with Chattar Singh Attariwala and his son Sher Singh.

8. Revolt of Chattar Singh of Hazara: Chattar Singh was the Governor of Hazara under the Lahore Government. The English also forced him to rise in revolt. An English officer, Captain Abott, instigated the Afghans of Hazara to revolt against the Sikh State. This British policy of hatching conspiracies led Chattar Singh to take up arms against them in August, 1848 A.D. and join hands with Mulraj.

9. Revolt of Sher Singh: Sher Singh, the son of Chattar Singh who had been sent by the Lahore Government to suppress the revolt of Multan also joined the forces of his father and Mulraj in September 1848 A.D. Thus the revolt against the English spread all over the Punjab. Sher Singh appealed to all the Sikhs to join the rebels to oust the English from the Punjab.

10. Invasion of Punjab by the English: Lord Dalhousie wanted to wage a war against the Sikhs on one pretext or the other and annex the Punjab to the British Empire. Under this policy, he allowed small upsurges by Mulraj, Chattar Singh and Sher Singh to take the form of a big rebellion so that the English could find an excuse to grab the Punjab. The English forces under the command of Lord Hugh Gough crossed the river Sutlej on November 9, 1848 and reached Lahore on 13 November. These forces were engaged in suppressing the rebellion. Thus the Second Anglo-Sikh War began.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War proved destructive for the Sikhs.

Following were its mains results :

1. Annexation of Punjab into the British Empire: The Sikhs were completely defeated in this war. By a proclamation, Lord Dalhousie declared that the Punjab was annexed into the British Empire. Maharaja Dalip Singh was dethroned and the Punjab became a part of the British Empire.

2. Punishment to Mulraj and Maharaj Singh: Mulraj was held responsible for the murder of the two English officers, Agnew and Anderson. Mulraj was exiled to Andaman Islands (Kala Pani). On December 29, 1849. Maharaj Singh was arrested. He was sentenced to life imprisonment and sent to Singapore prison.

3. Disbanding of the Khalsa Army: The Khalsa Army was disbanded and the lands of many Sikh Chiefs were confiscated. The soldiers of the disbanded army were allowed to join the British army.

4. Appointment of the British officers in the Punjab: After the Second Anglo- Sikh War, the English officials were appointed on high posts in place of the Hindus, the Sikhs and the Muslims. They were given handsome salaries and allowances.

5. Establishment of a Frontier Force: Henry Lawrence, with the help of Edwards and Nicholson, constituted a Board for the administration of the frontier territories. A frontier force was also raised which consisted of infantry, horsemen, artillery and elephants. The English pulled down the old and outdated forts and constructed new ones and cantonments in their place.

6. Establishment of a Board of Administration: Lord Dalhousie constituted a Board of Administrators to administer the Punjab. Henry Lawrence was the Chairman of this Board. This Board consisted of three members. They were collectively responsible for running the administration of the Punjab. The members of the Board were given extensive powers in administrative and judicial matters. Many reforms were introduced by this Board. Roads and canals were constructed and a new postal system was introduced.

7. Cordial relations with the Sikh Chiefs: The rulers of Patiala, Nabha, Jirid, Kapurthala and Faridkot had helped the English in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. The English gave them big rewards for their services. The English also resolved not to annex their states into the British Empire.

The Second Anglo-Sikh War broke out in 1848 A.D. The immediate cause of the war was the revolt of the governor of Multan, Dewan Mulraj . On 19th April, 1848 A.D. Mulraj handed over the administration of Multan to two British officials. The people of Multan were excited to see the British officials and they rose in revolt and murdered the British officials. The whole of Punjab revolted against the British rule. At last, the British decided to declare a war against the Lahore Kingdom. The most important battles of this war were Battle of Ram Nagar (22 November, 1848), Battle of Multan (December 1848), Battle of Chillianwala (January 13, 1849), Battle of Gujrat (February, 1849). The Battle of Ram Nagar was not a decisive battle. The Sikhs had to face defeat in the battles of Multan, Chillianwala and Gujrat. In 1849, the Sikhs surrendered completely. After this, the Punjab was annexed to the British Empire.

1. The main cause of 1st Anglo-Sikh war was that Lai Singh and Rani Jindan had instigated the Sikh army against the British.
2. Lai Singh and Rani Jindan convinced the Sikh army that the British were determined to occupy the Punjab after capturing Sindh.
3. The British had gathered more than 35,000 soldiers at Ludhiana.
4. The British increased their army in Sindh and made a bridge of boats across the river Sutlej to cross it. All these events made the Sikhs to believe that the British wanted to capture Punjab. Under these circumstances, the Sikh army crossed the river Sutlej in 1845 and the 1st Anglo-Sikh war began.

1. The British secured the territory of Jalandhar Doab.
2. Dalip Singh was appointed as Maharaja and a Council of Regency comprising of eight members was established to run the administration.
3. Sir Henry Lawrence was appointed as the Resident at Lahore.
4. The Sikhs had to pay 1~ crore rupees as the war indemnity to the British. The Lahore Darbar had only Rs. 50 lakhs in its treasury. So it sold away the province of Jammu and Kashmir to Raja Gulab Singh.
5. It was decided to keep the British army in Lahore. The Khalsa Darbar was required to pay Rs. 22 lakhs rupees annually for its maintenance.
6. The strength of the Sikh army was reduced to only 20,000 foot-soldiers.

1. Ranjit Singh was an arbitrary ruler. All the powers of the state were concentrated in his hands. After his death, his unworthy successors could not control the vast kingdom efficiently.
2. Ranjit Singh followed a weak policy towards the British. The British took advantage of it and were ultimately successful in annexing the Punjab.
3. The administration of Maharaja Ranjit Singh was based on strong army. After Ranjit Singh’s death, the Sikh army took all powers in its hands. The Sikh chiefs tried to weaken the Sikh army and incited it to wage war against the British.
4. In some battles, during the First and the Second Anglo-Sikh War, the Sikh forces were about to win the war. But because of the treachery of their commanders, their victory was converted into a defeat.

The Punjab was annexed to the British Empire in 1849. Lord Dalhousie was the Governor-General at that time.

Original Jurisdiction

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) is litigation that can be filed in any court of law by any person for the protection of ‘public interest’. It has achieved importance in the Indian legal system and is a landmark of judicial activism. It developed through the decisions of Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer, Justice C. J. Chandrachud, and Justice P. N. Bhagawati. Some significant cases include 

• Katara (human rights activist) vs Union of India case that changed the way that public authorities handled medicolegal cases such as in case of road accidents. 
• Vishaka’s judgment provided guidelines with regard to women’s rights and especially sexual harassment (prevention of and dealing with cases of sexual harassment). This judgment came after the Bhanwari Devi rape case and subsequent PIL filed by Naina Kapur, a lawyer. 
• H. Khatoon vs State of Bihar (1979) – This case drew the attention of the court to the pathetic condition of undertrials in Bihar. This tried to ensure speedy trials. 
• Mehta vs Union of India (1988) with regard to pollution of the Ganga basin covering 8 States in India.

A writ is a directive issued by the Supreme court or High courts. 

Writs under the Constitution of India under Article 32. 

• Habeas Corpus – A court can order any officer of the Government or any private person to produce before itself any individuals to examine whether they have been legally detained or not. 
• Mandamus – A court can order any officer or any department of the Government to perform its duties. 
• Prohibition – A court can order a court lower than itself in the judicial structure not to hear a particular case on the grounds that the case does not fall within the jurisdiction of the latter.
•  Quo Warranto – The court can ask whether the holder of any public office or post is holding it in accordance with the law or not. 
• Certiorari – A higher court can order a court lower than itself in the judicial structure to send all the relevant documents pertaining to a case to itself.

Answer is Impeachment

(a) Meaning: Judicial Review means the power of the Judiciary to examine if any law passed by the legislature or any executive policy or action is consistent with the Constitution or not, and if it is not then to declare it as unconstitutional and hence null and void.

(b) Need: It becomes necessary to have an institution that would examine whether the laws are consistent with the Constitution or not. That institution should also have the power to declare any law found inconsistent with the Constitution to be invalid and therefore not to be implemented. This would prevent the Legislature from making laws that violate the Constitution. In democracies with written Constitutions, this power is vested in the Judiciary. The Judiciary is not involved in any way in the law-making process. It is an independent body. Hence it has been assigned this power.

(c) When and where it started: The origins of the power of Judicial Review can be traced to a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States of America given in 1803 in a case known as the Marbury vs Madison case. This was for the first time that the American Supreme Court declared a law passed by the United States Congress to be invalid on the grounds that it was inconsistent with the Constitution of the United States. However, it must be noted that the American Constitution does not have an explicit provision that gives the Judiciary the power of Judicial Review. It is an implied power. To date, the American Supreme Court’s power of Judicial Review has been unchallenged. This is so because it is accepted that such a power is necessary to retain the supremacy of the Constitution.

(d) Indian Context: The Constitution of India does not explicitly provide the judiciary with the power of Judicial Review. However, like in the United States, these powers are implied. The Supreme Court of India has on many occasions declared laws passed by the Legislature as being inconsistent with the Constitution and therefore unconstitutional. In the Indian context, the real issue has been whether the amendments to the Constitution can be held unconstitutional. The issue was settled by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973). In its judgment, the Court stated that the Constitution of India had a ‘Basic Structure’. The Constitutional Amendments passed by the Parliament have to be consistent with this ‘Basic Structure’, and if they are found to be not, then the Supreme Court would declare them unconstitutional. The power to declare any Amendments as unconstitutional rests only with the Supreme Court.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

This statement is True.

• Provisions for judicial independence are provided in the Indian Constitution.
• This includes provisions related to appointment, tenure, salary, and allowances, removal from office, etc., of judges so that the judiciary acts in a free and fair manner.

(b) Judicial Review – USA

The judiciary and executive are both organs of the government. The main function of the executive is the implementation of laws and policies while the functions of the judiciary include interpretation of law and adjudication. In India, judges are appointed by the President (nominal executive). Traditionally, these appointments were made after consulting with the existing government (ministry). However, to maintain judicial independence, the collegium of judges recommends names for appointment to the President.

There are many instances where the executive is a party to a dispute either as the plaintiff or as the defendant. Given the power of the Government, any legal dispute between it and one or more citizens is usually unequal. There is a possibility that the Government would use its powers to secure a favourable decision.

This is where the independence of the Judiciary becomes important. An independent judiciary ensures that all those who appear before it is treated on an equal plane, and thus makes sure that decisions are in accordance with the law.

One of the main ways to secure judicial independence relates to the appointment of the judges. A judiciary that works under government favour, fear, or pressure i.e., a ‘committed judiciary’ can never give impartial, fair decisions especially when the government is a party in any dispute. The judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed by the President of India who is expected to be politically neutral.

However, according to the 42nd Amendment Act, the President acts on the aid and advice of the Union Ministry, Hence, executive interference in judicial appointments is a real possibility. Since the 1990s, the Supreme Court ruled that the Judiciary must play a leading role in its judicial appointments. The Supreme Court set up a Collegium consisting of the Chief Justice of India and the four senior-most judges of the court which would recommend names to the President for appointment to the Supreme Court and the High Courts. The Government’s role in this process has now been minimized.

India has a single integrated judicial system, with the Supreme Court at the apex and followed by the High Courts in the States. The Supreme Court controls all courts and tribunals in the territory of India. The High Court controls and supervises the functioning of the subordinate courts e.g., District Courts, in its territorial jurisdiction. The High Courts have Appellate jurisdiction, regarding decisions of the lower courts while Supreme Court can hear appeals in civil, criminal, and constitutional cases against decisions of the High Courts.

Supreme Court has original Jurisdiction such as in disputes about the election of the President or Vice- President which are its exclusive jurisdiction. Both, Supreme Court and High Court have Writ Jurisdiction i.e., they can issue directives or writs such as Habeas Corpus in case of violation of a person’s fundamental rights. In case of appointment of judges of High Courts, the President also consults the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

India has a single integrated judicial system, with the Supreme Court at the apex and followed by the High Courts in the States. The Supreme Court controls all courts and tribunals in the territory of India. The High Court controls and supervises the functioning of the subordinate courts e.g., District Courts, in its territorial jurisdiction. The High Courts have Appellate jurisdiction, regarding decisions of the lower courts while Supreme Court can hear appeals in civil, criminal, and constitutional cases against decisions of the High Courts.

 Supreme Court has original Jurisdiction such as in disputes about the election of the President or Vice President which are it’s exclusive jurisdiction. Both, Supreme Court and High Court have Writ Jurisdiction i.e., they can issue directives or writs such as Habeas Corpus in case of violation of a person’s fundamental rights. In case of appointment of judges of High Courts, the President also consults the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

In addition to the courts, there are tribunals established by both the Central Government as well as the State Governments to deal with disputes of a specialized nature e.g., the Armed Forces Tribunal, the Income Tax Appellate Tribunal, and the National Green Tribunal. 

The examples of the tribunals established by the State Government in Maharashtra are the Maharashtra Administrative Tribunal and the Maharashtra Revenue Tribunal. These bodies are known as quasi-judicial bodies, and their functioning is governed by separate laws. They consist of retired judges, as well as individuals who are experts in the fields which fall within the jurisdiction of the relevant tribunal. For instance, the Armed Forces Tribunal also has retired officers from the armed forces as expert members. All the tribunals in India, like all the courts, are ultimately subordinate to the Supreme Court of India.

• Reservation 
• provisions in the Constitution 
• Different kinds of Laws 
• Act of 1850 
• Act of 1980 
• Act of 2006 
• Abolition of Untouchability

Social exclusion is the combined result of deprivation and discrimination that presents individual or groups from participating completely in the economic, social and political life of the society in which they live.Social exclusion is structural i.e., the outcome of social processes and institutions rather than individual action. 

In this process, the individuals may cut off from total improvement in the broader society.

The Supreme court is at the apex of the Indian judicial system.

1. Original Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction to the exclusion of any other court in any dispute:

• between the Government of India and one or more States or
• between the Government of India and any State(s) on one side and any other State(s) on the other side. 
• between two or more States. Disputes regarding the election of the President and Vice President are the exclusive jurisdiction of the court.

2. Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal in the territory of India. Appellate jurisdiction can be considered as follows:

• Appeals in Constitutional cases: This means that an appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court from any decree or judgment of a High Court if the High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution. 
• Appeals in Civil cases: an appeal against any judgment or decree of a High Court in a civil case may be filed in the Supreme Court, provided the High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of interpretation of the law.
•  Appeals in Criminal cases: against High Court order if the High Court has: 
• on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused and sentenced him to death, 
• withdrawn for trial before itself a case from a Subordinate Court and in such a trial convicted the accused and sentenced him to death or 
• if the High Court certifies that the case is a fit one for an appeal to the Supreme Court.

3. Writ Jurisdiction: 

Under Article 32, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction to entertain a writ petition from a party that complains of the violation of a fundamental right. However, this is not exclusive as the party may also approach the High Court in this case.

The Supreme Court protects the Fundamental Rights of the citizens through various types of writs, like 

• Habeas Corpus 
• Mandamus 
• Prohibition 
• Quo Warranto 
• Certiorari. 

(a) Habeas Corpus (to have the body): It is a direction of the Court to the detaining authority to produce the detained person before the court for enquiring into the grounds of detention. 

(b) Mandamus (we order): This is in the nature of command of a Court (Supreme or High Court) to a person or body to perform some public legal duty which he has refused to perform. 

(c) Prohibition: This writ is issued to special tribunals, commissions, and magistrates who are vested with judicial powers, prohibiting them from exceeding their jurisdiction. 

(d) Quo Warranto (by what authority?): This writ is issued against a person who claims or usurps a public office to inquire by what authority he has done so. 

(e) Certiorari: This writ is issued to a lower court directing it to transfer the records and case for trial to a higher court to prevent an abuse/usurpation of jurisdiction. 

4. Advisory Jurisdiction: 

The President has the right to seek the legal advice of the Supreme Court on any matter of public importance which involves a question of law or any dispute arising out of any treaty or agreement executed before the commencement of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is bound to give its opinion on any matter referred to it by the President. However, the opinion of the Court is not binding on the President. 

5. Judicial Review: 

Judicial Review consists of the competence of the Supreme Court and High Courts to pronounce a law passed by the Parliament or State Legislature or any executive action as ultra vires to the Constitution (i.e., unconstitutional) and hence null and void if in the opinion of the court the law of action is contrary to the provisions or spirit of the Constitution.

Untouchability is a social practice within the caste system in which members of the lowest castes are thought to be ritually impure to such a limit that they cause pollution by mere touch or even sight. Untouchable castes are at the bottom of the hierarchical system. These low castes are excluded from most social institutions. 

It is an extreme and vicious aspect of the caste system. It uses stringent social and ritual sanctions against members of castes located at the bottom of the purity pollution scale. They are considered to be outside the caste hierarchy.

The Karachi Meeting of the Congress was in 1931. It made a declaration regarding the fundamental rights of Indian citizens. It highlighted woman-equality. 

Here are the main points of the declaration:

• All are equal before law irrespective of caste, religion, class, and gender. 
• There will be no discrimination against anybody on the basis of religion, caste, class or gender for taking up government jobs, occupying positions of authority and getting any titles. Each person will have the right to do whatever profession he chooses. 
• Voting right will be based on adult franchise. 
• Women will have the right to vote and take up public positions.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy started the Bengali Social Reform Movement.

Some people have said that it was men who actually fought for women’s rights and their ideas were imported from Western nations. Both these ideas are wrong.

There were many women who fought for women’s rights. Pandita Ramabai, Mataji Maharani Thapaswini, Anandibai and Sr. Subbalakshmi were some of them. There were many writers who highlighted the problems of women with their powerful writing. They include Tharabai Shinde and Begum Rokea Sakhawat Hussain.

The Sardar Sarovar Dam in the Narmada River in Western India and the Polavaram Dam in Godavari in Andhra Pradesh have made thousands of Adivasis leave their homes, pushing them into poverty. In the 1990s there were the economic liberalization policies and this has made their condition even worse. With the liberalization policy, many corporate companies appeared. They drove away the Adivasis from their land giving them very little compensation and started schemes to exploit the natural resources there. The word Adivasi means ‘real settlers’ or ‘first settlers’. This word was used as a part of the struggle against those who trespassed into the habitat of Adivasis as part of the Colonial Government’s schemes for the so-called development.

Adivasis are people who have been losing their land and forest in the name of development. This word has also the symbolic meaning of political awareness and claiming their rights.

The Tribals have fought seriously protesting against discrimination and exploitation. They have fought against the intruders and the government. Because of their struggles, Jharkhand and Chhatisgarh became States. At this level, the struggles of Adivasis are different from those of Dalits. As Adivasis live in large numbers in nearby areas, they could demand States of their own. But Dalits are so scattered all over, they can’t make such demands.

From time immemorial, women have been victims of exploitation and inequality. As the Reform Movements of modern India took the problems of women seriously, they were brought to public attention. There were regional differences in the Social Reform Movements that came up in the 19^th century. They are often called Middle-Class Reformation Movements. 

It is so because most of the Reformists were Middle-Class men who had got western education. Western concepts about democracy and the ancient democratic traditions of India had influenced them in equal measure. Many of them used these ideas in their fight against inequality. Rajaram Mohan Roy in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Bombay Presidency and Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan among the Muslims fought for the rights of women. Rajaram Mohan Roy especially fought for women’s rights. Ranade fought for widow-remarriage. Jyotirao Phule fought against gender discrimination. Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan struggled for reforms in Islam.

It was Rajaram Mohan Roy that started the first Reform Movement in Bengal. He tried to bring changes in the Indian society and Hinduism. In 1928 he founded Brahma Samaj. He had started is fight against Sati even before that. Sati was the first ‘problem’ that grabbed public attention. Roy formulated an ideology that was a mixture of European rationalism and Indian tradition. He used both these concepts to fight against Sati. He proved that Sati was anti-human and anti-religious.

Widows in the Upper Castes had to suffer a lot. Their bad condition was noticed by the Reformists. They took up their case. They fought for the rights of widows and also for their right to remarry. Ranade made use of books like “Analogy of Religion, Three Sermons on Human Nature” by Bishop Joseph Butler. Ranade’s books like the “Texts of the Hindu Law “, “Lawfulness of the Remarriage of Widows”, and “Vedic Authorities for Remarriage” established that widow remarriage had the sanction of the Vedas.

Rajaram Mohan RdV and Ranade were Middle-Class Upper Caste Reformists. Reformists from the lower classes also fought for women’s equality. Jyoti Rao Phule from Maharashtra is an example. He fought heroically against gender discrimination and Jati system. He founded a Movement called Satyasodhak Samaj”, seeking truth. This Organization did a lot for the benefit of women and Untouchables.

In the light of Western ideas, Sir Sayed Ahmed Khan tried to reform the Islamic community. He recommended reforms keeping himself within the framework of religion. He argued for the education of Muslim girls. He said that this education could be given in places near their homes. Like Swami Vivekananda, he also stood for women education. He said that in their curriculum, religious principles, training for running a home, skills in handicrafts, and childcare should be included: We must evaluate him by looking at the circumstances in which he made these suggestions. His contributions for women education were really great.

They are: 

a) Seclusion 

b) Ridicule and submission 

c) Exploitation 

Seclusion is to be suffered only by the Untouchables. Other Jatis don’t suffer from it. It is the Dalits who suer the worst form of seclusion. They could not draw water from public wells. They could not worship with other Jatis or take part in any functions of festivities. But they are forced to do low jobs. For example, they were forced to beat the tom-toms (chenda) during religious functions.

Ridicule and submission are important aspects of Untouchability. Dalit and other lower castes are to do certain symbolic signs in public to show respect to the higher castes. They had to remove their head- cover, hold their slippers in their hand, stand with bowed heads, and not wear clean and colorful clothes. They were often scolded and ridiculed public.

Economic exploitation was another factor of Untouchability. Dalits and lower castes were exploited in various ways. They were forced to work without payment or with very little payment. Their properties were often confiscated by the higher castes.

Untouchability is the worst part of the Jati System. Jati system imposes severe social controls and restraints on the lower castes. The suddha-asuddha (Purity- Pollution) concept is behind this heinous system. Those who are outside the Jati system were considered untouchables. They are impure. Even their touch can pollute members of other Jatis. If the Untouchables touch members of the Upper Castes, they would be given severe punishments. Those who were touched by the Untouchables had to undergo complex purification processes.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy formed the Brahma Samaj.

Untouchability is certainly an Indian phenomenon. There might be some variations in its intensity and forms, depending on regional, historical and social background.

Untouchables were known by different names in different centuries. In the ancient period, they were called ‘Chandalas’. All those names were contemptuous and degenerative. Some of the names are used even today as abusive words, even though it is a criminal offense. In the 1930s, with a view to remove the contempt in the names, Gandhiji gave the Untouchables a new name ‘Harijans’. It means children of God. He made that name popular.

But the untouchable groups and their leaders gave them their own name ‘Dalits’. Today this name is widely used. ‘Dalit’ means suppressed. Dr. Ambedkar never used this name. But the echo of his philosophy and his Empowering Movement is heard in this name. In the 1970s, during the Jati revolts in Bombay, the word ‘Dalit’ received great popularity. The Dalit Panthers was a revolutionary group from Western India and they used this name to uphold their being and individuality.

Government passed many laws to prevent caste discrimination and to punish offenders. One of them is the Freedom of Religion Act of 1850. This Law says that the rights of citizens should not be reduced or denied if they change their Caste or Religion.

The 93^rd Amendment to our Constitution in 2005 also is on similar lines. It came into effect from 23 January 2006. Both the 1850 Act and the 2006 Constitution Amendment Act are related to education. The 1850 Law gave the Dalits admission to government schools. The 2006 Amendment made reservations to Other Backward Classes in our Higher Educational Institutions.

Between 1850 and 2006, many laws were enacted by various governments. The Indian Constitution (1950) itself is one such law. In 1989 the “Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act” came into force. This law was enacted with the specific purpose of preventing atrocities to the members of scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This law recommended severe punishments to those who committed offenses against Dalits and Adivasis. By the 17^th article of the Constitution, Untouchability was abolished.

Prejudice refers to pre-judgement, i.e., an opinion made in advance. Prejudice refers to pre-thought opinions or attitudes held by members of one group towards another. 

Prejudice may be either positive or negative. A prejudiced person’s pre-thought views  are generally based on hearsay rather than on direct evidence. This word is generally used for negative pre-judgements. 

On the other hand, an opinion is a judgment about someone or something, not necessarily based on fact and knowledge.

Social inequality and seclusion are realities in the life of the Indian society. On the street, we see so many beggars. We also see small children employed to work in households. We see them working as helpers in construction sites, tea shops, and temporary food outlets. We see them engaged in cleaning jobs. We see small children working as servants in households carrying the school bags of children who are much bigger than them.

Often these sights don’t affect us. We may not feel that forcing children to work at their school-going age, preventing them from learning, is injustice. We often read how children are segregated or discriminated in school, we hear about violence against women, hatred to minorities, contempt for the physically or mentally challenged, etc. These news items also may not affect us much. All these are examples of social inequality and seclusion.