Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Fusion of male and female garnets to form zygote is called Fertilization.

• In order to understand the true nature of an event, one needs to know its opposite for e.g. True — False, Good — Bad, etc.
• A German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel had put forward this method of analysis of history.
• A theory called ‘Thesis’ is proposed at the beginning. It is followed by another theory called Antithesis’ which is, contrary to ‘Thesis’.
• After a thorough logical discussion of both new thesis is proposed having gist of both (Thesis and Antithesis).
• This process of orriving at a new thesis is called Synthesis.
• This method of analysis of history which is based on opposites is known as ‘Dialectics’.

In the latter part of nineteenth century, German thinker, Karl Marx put forward ‘Class Theory’ in his book ‘Das Kapital’.

According to him:

1. History i not about abstract ideas but living people. The fullillment of basic needs of people depends on the nature of prevalent means of production and the ownership. 

2. All the different strata of the society do not get equal access to these means of production which causes the division of the society into classes. It results into class struggle. 

3. The class which owns means of production $ economically exploits the rest of the classes. Human history, according to him, is the history of class struggle.

Pollen grains reach the stigma of flower through insects, birds, air and water.

Father of heredity is Mendel.

(c) binary fission

(c) pollination

(a) trimultiple

The Gupta period was famous for great books and development in literature, art, architecture, Kali das  was a great poet and play writer during this period. His masterpiece was the Shakuntala. Sophisticated gold coins were minted during the Gupta period. The Gupta period was famous for marvelous rock cut caves. Some of the paintings and sculptures of Ajantha and Ellora Caves are the finest examples of that period.

Athenian democracy reached its greatest height, under the leadership of Pericles. He was a great radical in politics. It was he who completed the work of laying the foundation for democracy in Athens. He deprived the ‘Areopagus’ of its political powers and transferred the same to the council of five hundred. This body suggested measures to the Acclesia the assembly. It was freely discussed by all the citizens of Athens and laws were passed.

Another important feature of the Periclean age was the jury system. Every year about 5000 jurors were elected for a term of one year. Being a great lover of democracy, he wanted even the poorest citizen to take an interest in political affairs. This is what we call today, the Direct Democracy.

Athens which was destroyed during the Persian war was rebuilt by Pericles. Athens became a centre of progress in art and architecture. Very large public buildings were constructed, which beautified Athens. The famous Parthenon or the temple of Virgin was built of coloured marble stones. It was the most beautiful temple. Pericles also patronized music.

To protect his beautiful city from foreign invaders, he built Tong walls’ connecting the city with the port Piraeus. The age of Pericles produced great Philosophers like Socrates and his pupil, Plato. Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were the dramatists of Periclean age. Hippocrates is regarded as the ‘Father of Medicine’. Herodotus is regarded as ‘The Father of History’. Thucycidides was another famous historian of the Periclean age. Sappho and Pindar lived during this period. Periclean age of Athens is regarded as the ‘School of Hellas’ and ‘The Golden Age’.

Greek Philosophers furnished the impetus for the beginning of the study Of science. Aristotle laid the foundation for the study of natural science. Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle established Botany as a recognized science. The Periclean age produced great men. Hippocrates laid the foundations for modern Medicine. He taught that diseases have a natural origin and are not caused by evil spirits, as many believed in those days. He is known as the ‘Father of Medicine’. Herophilus is called as the ‘Father of Anatomy’.

Ptolemy believed that the Earth was the centre of the Universe. But Aristarchus propounded the theory that Earth and other planets, revolved around the Sun. Eratosthenes calculated the approximate circumference of Earth within a small degree of error of 320 Kilometres. He also prepared a fairly accurate map of the world and he was the first to suggest that one could reach India from Europe by sailing west. Pythagoras and Euclid made many contributions to mathematics, especially to Geometry. Archimedes was also a famous scientist of ancient Greece.

In the field of literature, Greeks contributed to Epics, Poetry, Drama and History. ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’ are the two works of Homer. These Epics give us a fairly faithful account of the social, economic and political conditions of early Greek Culture. The shorter Greek poems were called Lyrics. Pindar and Sappo were the two lyric poets of Greek Civilization. The drama is the most familiar of the Greek forms of literature. The remains of Greek theatres can be still be seen all over the Aegean region.

The founder of Greek tragedy was Aeschylus, author of ‘Prometheus Bound’ and ‘Agamemnon’. Sophocles, the greatest of the Greek tragedians, wrote ‘Oedipus Rex’, ‘Antigone’ and ‘Electra’. These plays are admired all over the world even today. Euripides the third of the great tragic Poets believed that in life people were more important than Gods.

Hence he concerned himself with the passions and emotions of human beings. One of his best-known plays is the ‘Trojan Women’. Aristophanes was the greatest comic poet. World’s first great historian Herodotus, Thucydides who wrote he “Peloponnesian Wars’ and Plutarch known for his biographies ‘Lives of illustrious men’ all lived during this period. Oratory is the art of making public speeches. The most famous orator was Demosthenes.

Mahendravarman-I was a great patron of art and architecture. He introduced a new style of Dravidian architecture which was known as the Mahendra style. 

Narasimhavarman-I converted the port of Mahabalipuram into a beautiful city of art and architecture. Five rathas were built in Mahabalipuram. Each ratha has been carved out of a single rock.

Narsimhavarman-II was another Pallava king and during his period temples were built by using soft sand rocks. It was known as the Rajasimha style. The famous Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram is the best Example of Rajasimha style.

1. Aryabhatta

2. Brahmagupta

3. Sushruta

4. Charaka

5. Golden Age

6. Hunas

7. Krishna

8. Gauthamiputra Satakarni

9. Gauthamiputra Satakarni

10. Acharya Nagarjuna

In the early times, the Greeks used wood, and later they used sun-dried bricks and marbles to built their temples. The Greek architecture consists of three styles namely Doric, Ionic, and the Corinthian styles. The Parthenon is said to be the most beautiful temple ever built out of the coloured marble stones. We find a tall marble statue of Goddess Athena carved by Phidias inside the temple.

The temple consists of 46 Doric columns, each 34 feet high. Actinus the famous architect of this temple blended Doric, Ionian and Corinthian styles to make this temple a wonder of the world. It was built by King Pericles. The majestic and beautiful temple is now in ruins. Alexander’s conquest initiated several centuries of cultural exchange between Greece and Central Asia. The Gandhara art in Ancient India developed due to the Greek influence.

The Greeks expressed the human values like beauty and courage in the sculptures. They portrayed naked, well built and muscular bodies. Even Gods were portrayed as human beings. Myron and Phidias were the best-known sculptors. Myron is famous for the Statue of Discus Thrower. Greeks also excelled in Paintings on vases.

1. Cultural Contributions: The Greeks contributed to human civilization immensely. They believed in the principles of a sound mind in a sound body. They imagined the human body as a thing of beauty and had great curiosity and thirst for knowledge. They made great contributions to Literature, Sports, Philosophy, Politics, Ethics, Science, Music, Drama, . Religion, Art and Architecture. Greek ideology so completely dominated European culture that, the western culture today is predominantly Hellenic in its inspiration and ideas. So the legacy of Greece is vital and universal.

2. Literature: In the field of literature, Greeks contributed to Epics, Poetry, Drama and History. ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’ are the two works of Homer. These epics give us a fairly faithful account of the social, economic and political conditions of early Greek culture. The shorter Greek poems were called Lyrics, as they were primarily sung to the music of lyres. Pindar and Sappo the poetess were two great lyric poets of Greek Civilization.

The drama is the most familiar of the Greek forms of literature. The founder of Greek tragedy was Aeschylus, author of Prometheus Bound’ and ‘Agamemnon’. Sophocles, the greatest of the Greek tragedians, wrote ‘Oedipus Rex’, ‘Antigone’ and ‘Electra’. These plays are admired all over the world even today. Euripides the third of the great tragic poets, believed that in life people were more important than Gods. Hence he concerned himself with the passions and. emotions of human beings. One of his best-known plays is the ‘Trojan women’. Aristophanes was the greatest comic poet. Famous historians of the period were Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plutarch. Demosthenes was famous for his oratory skills, the art of making public speeches.

3. Science: Greek philosophers furnished the impetus for the beginning of the study of science. Aristotle laid the foundation for the study of natural science. Theophrastus established Botany as a recognized science. Hippocrates known as the ‘Father of Medicine’ laid the foundations . of modern medicine. He taught that diseases have a natural origin and not caused by evil spirits. Herophilus is called as the ‘Father of Anatomy’.

Ptolemy believed that the Earth was the centre of the Universe. But Aristarchus propounded the theory that Earth and other planets, revolved around the Sun. Eratosthenes calculated the approximate circumference of earth within a small error of 320 Kilometres. He also prepared a fairly accurate map of the world and he was the first to suggest that one could reach India from Europe by sailing westwards. Pythagoras and Euclid made many contributions to mathematics, especially to Geometry. Archimedes was also a famous scientist of ancient Greece.

4. Art and architecture: In the early times, the Greeks used wood, and later they used sun-dried bricks and marbles to build their temples. Greek architecture consists of three styles viz., Doric, Ionic, and the Corinthian styles. The Parthenon is said to be the most beautiful temple ever built out of the coloured marble stones. A tall marble statue of Goddess Athena carved by Phidias is inside the temple. The temple consists of 46 Doric columns, each 34 feet high Actinus, the famous architect of this temple blended Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian styles to make this temple a wonder of the world.

It was built by King Pericles. Alexander’s conquest initiated several centuries of cultural exchange between Greece and Central Asia. The Gandhara art in Ancient India developed due to Greek influence. The Greeks expressed the human values like beauty and courage in their sculptures. They portrayed naked, well built and muscular bodies. Even Gods were portrayed as human beings. Myron and Philidias were the best-known sculptors. Greeks also excelled in Paintings on vases.

1. D 

2. F 

3. G 

4. E 

5. A

Ideas and practices of the Greeks in the field of religion were quite different from those of other people in the world. They did not believe in God. On the other hand, they tended to glorify men who were powerful and beautiful. The Greek Gods were the Twelve Olympians of them three were very important, Zeus, Apollo, and Athena.

Zeus was the master of God’s and father of men. Apollo was the son of Zeus. Athena was the Protectress of cities. They had their abode at Mount Olympus. Greeks believe that they would often visit the earth. Unlike other religions, the Greeks had no established Church or any particular Holy Book. The Greeks practiced the celebration of festival Olympia as early as 776 BCE. The Oracles were specially sought after to predict events or to pronounce judgment. The Oracle Apollo of Delphi was the most famous.

Latin was the language of the ancient Roman Empire. It belongs to the family of Indo-European languages. The native sons of Latium saw the superiority of the Greek languages and proceeded to use its style, formulating their own. Before the fall of Rome, Latin became the accepted language of much of the civilized world. Latin remained the language of the Church, science, medicine, law, and education. It was used for most of the written transactions in Europe, throughout the middle ages.

In the field of literature, the Romans tried to imitate the Greeks. The ‘Golden Age’ of Latin literature was heralded in the Prose works of Cicero and the Poetry of Catullus and Lucretius. Julius Caesar wrote ‘Gallic Wars’ and ‘Civil wars’. The dawn of Augustinian age saw writings of Virgil, Horace, Livy, and Ovid, Virgil has been given the title, the most splendid ‘Voice of Rome’.

He wrote ‘Aeneid’. Augustinian age saw the Lyrics of Horace and the ‘Natural History’ of Livy. Livy’s another great work was ‘History ”of Rome’. The ‘Silver Age’ (198 BCE- 138 CE) saw the Tragedies of Seneca, the Satire of Juvenal and the sceptical Histories of Tacitus. Tacitus also wrote ‘Annals’ and, ‘Histories’. Pliny, the Elder wrote ‘Natural History’. The other well-known Historians were Sallust and Plutarch. Marcus Aurelius wrote ‘Meditation’ and was a great orator on philosophy.

• Chalcolithic sites have been discovered in Bihar, Bengal, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh. 
• The excavations at sites like Chirand, Sonpur, etc. yielded earthen pots of black-and-red ware. 
• The shapes of these pots are similar to those of Harappan culture. 
• Thus, it seems that the Harappan people had gone as far as Bihar, and the local cultures were influenced by them.

Archaeologists have found spindle whorls from the excavation sites. Presence of large number of spindles proves the use of cotton for weaving cloths.Actual pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of a silver vase and some copper objects. This shows that people in the Harappan Civilization used cloth.

Names of four important leaders of the revolt were:

1. Nana Sahib
2. Tantya Tope
3. Rani Laxmi Bai and
4. Kanwar Singh

1. There was discontentment among the Indian rulers because of the policy of the subsidiary alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse.
2. Title of Emperor was taken away from the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. He was, therefore, annoyed with the British.

The first war of Independence and Soldier Revolt.

Nationalism may be defined as a devotion and loyalty to one’s own nation, patriotism. It is also the policy or doctrine of asserting the interest of one’s own nation vie .ved as separate from the interests of others nations or common interest of all nation.

1. The Revolt of 1857 had failed to rid India of foreign rule. True. 

2. Western education and modern ideas could not bring the Indians togethe False. 

Correct : Western education and modem ideas bring the Indians together. 

3. Racial arrogance and racial discrimination by the British caused great resentment among Indian intellectuals. True. 

4. The Ilbert Bill had to be amended as the European reacted violently to it. True. 

5. O. Hume was not supported by nationalist Indian leaders. False. 

Correct: A. O. Hume was supported by nationalist Indian leaders.

The following were the main causes of failure of Indians in the rising of 1857 :

• The day of 31st May, 1857 was fixed for the start of revolt. But it started on 29 March. Rebels were not fully prepared for the revolt.
• Revolt did not spread in entire India.
• Unity was lacked among rebels.
• Rebels lacked means to carry on the revolt.
• Rebels were not fighting for any common objectives.
• Military generals of rebels were not capable objectives.
• Some local kingdoms helped the British to crush the revolt.
• Means of transport were under control of British.
• Intelligence system of the British was very good.
• They crushed the revolt with the help of their military.

1. The Christian missionaries were propagating Christianity in India. They insulted Hindu and Muslim religions while propagating Christianity. The Government never put any restrictions on their activities. So, the Indians were annoyed with this policy of the British.
2. In 1856 A.D. Religious Inability Act was passed. According to this Act, if someone changed his religion, he could get the share of his father’s property. Bypassing this law, the government encouraged the people to embrace Christianity.
3. The British did not treat Indians well. They called Indians ‘Rustics’ and ‘Black Indians’. Indians could not bear this insult. This also become a cause of the revolt of 1857.

The main aim of the Leagues was to achieve self-government within the British empire after the war.

1. True

2. True

3. False

1. The Congress was started in 1885. True.

2. Unification of India as one political unit was achieved by the Indians themselves. False.

3. The British treated the Indians at par with themselves. False

4. A prominent leader of the Early Nationalist groups was S.N. Bannerjee. True.

5. The religious and social reform ^movement divided the Indians. False.

6. The Home Rule League was formed under the leadership of Tilak. True.

7. Chauri Chaura is a place in Madhya Pradesh. False.

8. Rowlatt Act was passed in 1923. False.

Political and administrative unification of India helped in the rise of nationalism. Under the British rule India was united as one political unit. The uniformity in laws and administration gave rise to a feeling of oneness among the people.

The objectives of Non-Aligned Movements are as follows: 

• To reduce the intensity of the Cold War between the two powerful military blocs of America and Soviet Union and keep away from the two blocs. 
• To settle international disputes through peaceful dialogues.
• To oppose colonialism and Imperialism and support movements against them. 
• To support the Atomic Weapon reduction agreement and come out of military agreements. 
• To oppose racial conflicts, class discrimination, and Apartheid and to stage a fight against them. 
• To condemn the acts of aggression, the injustice of the power blocks and to take measures to stop them. 
• To safeguard the weaker countries from Economic Exploitation by the developed countries. To give financial assistance to developing countries. 
• To protect the fundamental human rights. 
• To solve problems like poverty, hunger, and illiteracy faced by NonAligned Nations. 
• To support the programmes undertaken by the United Nations Organization. 
• To remove Economic dependence and build self-dependence. 
• To uphold democratic principles and popularize them.

The Limitations of NAM are as follows: Non-Aligned Movement has been following the path of peace. It has opposed military power blocs. The economically backward countries and the ones that became independent after World War II and during the Cold War period, have come together to achieve political Sovereignty and economic progress. Non-Aligned Movement neither has its own military nor economic power. Inevitably, these countries have sought economic assistance from developed countries. This shows the basic weakness of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The following few incidents highlight the limitations of the Non-Aligned Movement.

• On 2^nd August 1990, Kuwait occupied Iraq. Though these two countries are members of Non-Aligned Movement, it failed to solve this problem. 
• Arabian countries do not have complete trust and specific interest in the Non-Aligned Movement. 
• Non-Aligned Movement has failed to get able leadership in recent times, as it had in the beginning like Tito, Nehru, and others. 
• The internal disputes among the Non-Aligned’countries and the lack of unity have weakened it. 
• Non-Aligned countries, on the one hand, are preaching disarmament and on the other are purchasing armaments from powerful countries. 
• Non-Aligned countries do not have their own military power. It is impossible to achieve anything through criticism and peace talks. 
• Non-Aligned countries have failed in checking terrorism. 

Achievements of NAM are manifold. Along with the United Nations Organization, NAM is trying to solve international problems peacefully. It has a role in the achievements of U.N.0.

The Major Achievements of Non-Aligned Movement are as follows.

• It has helped to decrease the intensity of Cold War. 
• Helped U.N.O. in resolving the issues pertaining to Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and Kuwait. 
• Worked hard to end Apartheid in South Africa. 
• Inspired treaties to reduce Atomic weapons. 
• Worked to resist the dominance of power blocs. 
• Popularized democratic principles.
• It is working hard to establish international peace. 
• It is trying to find solutions to the problems faced by member nations. 
• It is fighting for the self-reliance of member countries.

The objectives of Non-Aligned Movements are:

• To reduce the intensity of the Cold War between the two powerful military blocs of America and the Soviet Union and keep away from the two blocs. 
• To settle international disputes through peaceful dialogues. 
• To oppose colonialism and Imperialism and support movement against them. 
• To support the Atomic weapon reduction agreement and come out of military agreements. 
• To oppose racial conflicts, class discrimination, and Apartheid and to stage a fight against them. 
• To condemn the acts of aggression, injustice of the power blocs and to take measures to stop them. 
• To safeguard the weaker countries from the Economic Exploitation by the developed countries. To give financial assistance to developing countries. 
• To protect the fundamental human rights. 
• To solve problems like poverty, hunger, and illiteracy faced by Non Aligned Nations. 
• To support the programmes undertaken by the United Nations Organization. 
• To remove Economic dependence and build self dependence. 
• To uphold democratic principles and popularize them.

Causes that led to the Emergence of the Non-Aligned Movement are as follows.

1. Birth of Nationalism: As a result of the birth of nationalism, many Asian, African and Latin American countries got Independence before the onset of the Cold War. They decided to remain independent of the power blocs.

2. Problems of Non-Aligned Countries: Problems like poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and overpopulation faced by the third world countries led to the rise of the Non-Aligned Movement. It was inevitable for these countries to join one ideology or an institution to find solutions to these common problems.

3. Policy of World peace: World peace was affected by the constant conflict between capitalist and communist blocs affecting other countries. Hence Non-Aligned Movement emerged to establish world peace. 

4. Economic Exploitation: The Non-Aligned countries came together to free themselves from the economic exploitation and dependence on developed countries to achieve development.

5. Opposition to the dominance of power blocs: Non-Aligned countries came forward to oppose the two power blocs of the world, which imposed their dominance over them. 

6. Principles of Panchasheela: The Panchasheela principles of Nehru inspired the weaker countries to protect their freedom and existence. It led to the birth of the Non-Aligned Movement.

6. Principles of Panchasheela: The Panchasheela principles of Nehru inspired the weaker countries to protect their freedom and existence. It led to the birth of the Non-Aligned Movement.

7. Able Leadership: Able leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdel Nasser, Marshal Tito, and Ahmad Sukarno played an important role in the Non-Aligned Movement.

8. Cold War: Cold War started between the two power blocs. Non-Aligned Movement was needed to bring it under control.

Causes that led to the Emergence of Non-Aligned Movement are as follows.

1. Birth of Nationalism: As a result of the birth of nationalism, many Asian, African and Latin American countries got Independence before the onset of the Cold War. They decided to remain independent of the power blocs.

2. Problems of Non-Aligned Countries: Problems like poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, and overpopulation faced by the third world countries led to the rise of Non-Aligned Movement. It was inevitable for these countries to join one ideology or an institution to find solutions to these common problems.

3. Policy of World peace: World peace was affected by the constant conflict between capitalist and communist blocs affecting other Countries. Hence Non-Aligned Movement emerged to establish world peace.

4. Economic Exploitation: The Non-Aligned countries came together to free themselves from the economic exploitation and dependence on developed countries to achieve development.

5. Opposition to the dominance of power blocs: Non-Aligned countries came forward to oppose the two power blocs of the world, which imposed their dominance over them.

6. Principles of Panchasheela: The Panchasheela principles of Nehru inspired the weaker countries to protect their freedom and existence. It led to the birth of Non-Aligned Movement.

7. Able Leadership: Able leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdel Nasser, Marshal Tito, and Ahmad Sukarno played an important role in the Non-Aligned Movement.

8. Cold War: Cold War started between the two power blocs. Non-Aligned Movement was needed to bring it under control.

The development of Non-Aligned Movement was envisaged for the following reasons.

• To reduce the intensity of Cold War between the two powerful military blocs of America and Soviet Union and keep away from the two blocs. 
• To settle international disputes through peaceful dialouges. 
• To oppose colonialism and Imperialism and support movement against them. 
• To support Atomic weapon reduction agreement and come out of military agreements. 
• To oppose racial conflicts, class discrimination, and Apartheid and to stage a fight against them. 
• To condemn the acts of aggression, injustice of the power blocs and to take measures to stop them. 
• To safeguard the weaker countries from Economic Exploitation by the developed countries. To give financial assistance to developing countries. 
• To protect the fundamental human rights. 
• To solve problems like poverty, hunger, and illiteracy faced by Non Aligned Nations. 
• To support the programmes undertaken by the United Nations Organization. 
• To remove Economic dependence and build self-dependence. 
• To uphold democratic principles and popularize them.

The features of the Non-Aligned Movement are:

1. Economic Backwardness: Non-Aligned countries are economically backward. These countries have primitive Agriculture and weak industries. Hence the national production and per capita income of these countries are very low.

2. Dependence on others: Non-Aligned Countries are too backward in the field of Science, Technology, and Military and are dependent on developed countries for assistance.

3. Rural Structure: Non-Aligned Countries comprise of more number of villages. Many villages are deprived of basic necessities. These countries are lagging behind since they are far away from urbanization.

4. Over population: Population is increasing because of poverty, illiteracy, superstitions, etc. The Governments have failed in checking the growth of population. Programmes relating to population control introduced by the Governments have not realised the expected level Increasing population is the cause of economic backwardness.

5. Poverty and Hunger: Poverty is a serious problem among the Non-Aligned Countries. There is a shortage of food grains in these countries. They are dependent on the developed countries for food grains. Majority of Africans live in poverty. Non-Aligned countries are victims of poverty because of natural calamities, migration, internal clashes, unscientific utilization of natural resources, etc. Countries like Nigeria, Somalia, Uganda, Haiti, Angola, and Ethiopia are unable to provide nutritious food.

6. Spread of Epidemics: Negligence of Health is evident in the Non-Aligned Countries. Hence epidemics are spreading in these countries. There is scarcity of health services. The most dreaded disease AIDS is on the rise in these countries. 

7. Illiteracy: The Educational development policies of Non-Aligned Countries have failed. The number of illiterates has increased. Literacy is very low in the African countries and that among women is almost negligible. Asian countries are only slightly better in this respect.

8. Burden of Debt: Most of the Non-Aligned Countries are reeling under foreign debt. It is inevitable for them to borrow loans from world economic institutions for their internal development. They have been forced to borrow new loans to repay the old loans and interests on them. This has a spiralling effect and these countries go bankrupt.

9. Migration: From most of the third world countries, especially Africa, people move out to safer places in the developed countries for better employment, food and self protection. This depletes the countries effective work force. Water scarcity, unstable Governments and lack of modern military force are common in Non-Aligned countries.

Achievements of NAM: Achievements of NAM are manifold. Along with the United Nations Organization, NAM is trying to solve international problems peacefully. It has its role in the achievements of U.N.O. 

The major Achievements of Non-Aligned Movement are as follows.

• It has helped to decrease the intensity of Cold War. 
• Helped U.N.O. in resolving the issues pertaining to Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, and Kuwait. 
• Worked hard to end Apartheid in South Africa. 
• Inspired treaties to reduce Atomic weapons. 
• Worked to resist the dominance of power blocs. 
• Popularized democratic principles. 
• It is working hard to establish international peace. 
• It is trying to find solutions to the problems faced by member nations. 
• It is fighting for the self-reliance of member countries.

The Panchasheela principles accepted by India and China in 1954 are the principles of Non-Aligned Movements. They are,

• Mutual respect for each other’s Regional Integrity and Sovereignty. 
• Mutual non-Aggression. 
• Non interference in internal affairs. 
• To develop friendly relationship based on mutual co-operation and equality. 
• Peaceful co-existence

Limitations of NAM: Non-Aligned Movement has been following the path of peace. It has opposed military power blocs. The economically backward countries and the ones that became independent after World War II and during the Cold War period have come together to achieve political Sovereignty and economic progress. Non-Aligned Movement neither has its own military nor economic power. Inevitably, these countries have sought economic assistance from developed countries. This shows the basic weakness of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The following few incidents highlight the limitations of the Non-Aligned Movement. 

• On 2n^nd August 1990, Kuwait occupied Iraq. Though these two countries are members of the Non-Aligned Movement, it failed to solve this problem. 
• Arabian countries do not have complete trust and specific interest in the Non-Aligned Movement. 
• Non-Aligned Movement has failed to get able leadership in recent times, as it had in the beginning like Tito, Nehru, and others. 
• The internal disputes among the Non-Aligned countries and the lack of unity have weakened it. 
• Non-Aligned countries, on the one hand, are preaching disarmament and on the other are purchasing armaments from powerful countries. 
• Non-Aligned countries do not have their own military power. It is impossible to achieve anything through criticism and peace talks. 
• Non-Aligned countries have failed in checking terrorism.

संयुक्त राष्ट्र का जन्म 24 अक्तूबर, 1945 ई० को हुआ। इसके मूल सदस्य 51 देश थे।

In 1971 was Bangladesh created.

अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय न्यायालय में कुल 15 न्यायाधीश होते हैं।

भारत संयुक्त राष्ट्र के 51 मूल सदस्यों में से एक है। आरम्भ से ही भारतीय नेताओं ने इस महान् संस्था में अपनी आस्था रखी है और इस देश ने निम्नलिखित ढंग से संयुक्त राष्ट्र के कार्यों में क्रियाशील भूमिका निभाई है

1. भारत ने अन्य देशों के साथ मिलकर 1950 में उप-निवेशवाद और साम्राज्यवाद के विरुद्ध महासभा में प्रस्ताव पास करवाया।
2. भारत ने मिस्र, कांगो, कोरिया तथा हिन्द-चीन के देशों में हुए युद्धों में संयुक्त राष्ट्र के शान्ति प्रयासों में सहयोग दिया।
3. नस्ली भेदभाव और रंगभेद के सन्दर्भ में भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र के सहयोग से दक्षिण अफ्रीका के विरुद्ध आवाज़ उठाई और उसके विरुद्ध आर्थिक प्रतिबन्ध में भाग लिया।
4. भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र के माध्यम से प्रत्येक उस देश के विरुद्ध आवाज़ उठाई जिसने मानव अधिकारों का उल्लंघन करने का प्रयास किया।
5. विश्व में आतंकवाद की समाप्ति की प्रक्रिया में भारत संयुक्त राष्ट्र के साथ है।

संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ में विश्व शान्ति में भारत की भूमिका
भारत संयुक्त राष्ट्र की स्थापना करने वाला एक संस्थापक सदस्य है। भारत संयुक्त राष्ट्र को विश्व-शान्ति स्थापित करने वाला एक आवश्यक उपागम मानता है। भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र के विभिन्न अंगों तथा विशेष अभिकरणों में सक्रिय भाग लेकर महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य किये है। भारत ने आज तक संयुक्त राष्ट्र के आदेशों का पूर्णतः पालन किया है। कोरिया तथा हिन्द-चीन में शान्ति स्थापित करने के लिए भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र की सहायता की। भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र के आह्वान पर कांगों में शान्ति स्थापना हेतु अपनी सेनाएं भेजीं जिन्होंने उस देश की एकता को सुरक्षित रखा।

भारत द्वारा संयुक्त राष्ट्र में विश्व शान्ति की स्थापना में भूमिका को निम्न प्रकार समझा जा सकता है।

1. गैर-राष्ट्रों के संघर्षों की समाप्ति में योगदान – भारत ने क्रोशिया तथा बोस्निया-हर्जेगोविना में हुए संघर्षों को समाप्त करने के उद्देश्य से सुरक्षा परिषद् के प्रस्तावों को पूरा समर्थन दिया। संयुक्त राष्ट्र सुरक्षा दल के प्रयासों से लेफ्टिनेण्ट जनरल सतीश नाम्बियार की माण्ड में यूगोस्लाविया में संयुक्त राष्ट्र ऑपरेशन के लिए भेजी गई सेना की विश्वभर में प्रशंसा हुई। भारत ने सोमालियों को मानवीय सहायता तत्काल भेजने में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की कार्यवाही का समर्थन किया तथा उसके कार्यों में सहयोग दिया।
2. भारतीय सेनाओं का योगदान – संयुक्त राष्ट्र ने भारतीय सेनाओं के कार्यों की प्रशंसा की है। भारत ने कांगो में शान्ति स्थापना के लिए अपनी सेनाएँ भेजीं। उन्होंने निष्पक्षता के साथ वहाँ शान्ति तथा सुरक्षा की स्थापना करके देश की एकता को बचाया। इसके अतिरिक्त, भारत ने सोमालिया में भी शान्ति स्थापनार्थ अपनी सेवाएँ भेजीं। भारतीय सेनाएँ यूगोस्लाविया, कम्बोडिया, लाइबेरिया, अंगोला तथा मोजाम्बिक में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की शान्ति स्थापनार्थ कार्यवाही में सफलतापूर्वक भाग लेकर सम्मान सहित स्वदेश लौटी हैं। भारत ने एक टुकड़ी संयुक्त राष्ट्र अंगोला वेरीफिकेशन मिशन (U.N. Angola Verification Mission) पर जुलाई, 1995 में भेजी। वर्ष 1996-97 की अवधि में लगभग 1,100 भारतीय सैनिक, स्टाफ अधिकारी तथा सैनिक पर्यवेक्षक अंगोला में तैनात रहे। इतना ही नहीं, भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र रवांडा मिशन पर थल सेना की एक बटालियन भेजी जिसमें 800 सैनिकों की टुकड़ी तथा एक आन्दोलन नियन्त्रण यूनिट सम्मिलित थी। 22 सैन्य पर्यवेक्षक तथा 9 स्टाफ अधिकारियों को भी नियुक्त किया गया था। इस समय 5 सैनिक पर्यवेक्षक संयुक्त राष्ट्र इराक-कुवैत पर्यवेक्षक मिशन में और 6 पर्यवेक्षक लाइबेरिया में तैनात हैं।
सम्पूर्ण विश्व में संयुक्त राष्ट्र की शान्ति मिशन की वर्तमान 17 कार्यवाहियों में इस समय लगभग 80,000 असैनिक तथा सैनिक कार्यरत् हैं, जिनमें भारत के 6,000 कार्मिक हैं।। नवम्बर, 1998 में दक्षिणी लेबनान में भारतीय इन्फैण्ट्री बटालियन के सम्मिलित हो जाने से भारत संयुक्त राष्ट्र शान्ति स्थापना में दूसरा सबसे बड़ा सैनिक सहायता देने वाला देश बन गया है।
3. आर्थिक सहयोग पर महत्त्वपूर्ण कार्य – भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र से सम्बन्धित देशों के आह्वान पर आर्थिक सहयोग पर अधिक-से-अधिक बल दिया है तथा यथायोग्य सहायता भी प्रदान की है। विभिन्न देशों के साथ आर्थिक सहयोग के लिए संयुक्त राष्ट्र के लिए स्थापित संयुक्त । कमीशन तथा तकनीकी कार्यक्रमों के विकास में पूर्ण सहयोग दिया है। एशिया, अफ्रीका और लैटिन अमेरिका के विकासशील देशों के लिए तथा प्रादेशिक अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय स्तरों पर आर्थिक सहयोग का समर्थन किया है। इससे यह बात स्पष्ट होती है कि भारत ने आर्थिक विकास के लिए विश्व में अपनी अच्छी साख बनाई है। विभिन्न गुटनिरपेक्ष सम्मेलनों में पारित प्रस्तावों . में, अंकटाड की बैठकों में, संयुक्त राष्ट्र की आर्थिक समस्याओं पर होने वाले विशेष विचारविमर्श में, विशेषकर कच्चे माल और विकास के विषय में, संयुक्त राष्ट्र महासभा में पर्याप्त बल दिया गया है।
4. लोकतन्त्र के सिद्धान्त पर बल – संयुक्त राष्ट्र में विचार-विमर्श की अवधि में भारत ने संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघ के लोकतान्त्रिक स्वरूप और सुरक्षा परिषद् तथा संयुक्त राष्ट्र के अन्य अंगों को बढ़ी । हुई सदस्य संख्या के अनुरूप अधिक प्रतिनिधि बनाने का दृढ़ता के साथ समर्थन किया। भारत ने अपने प्रस्ताव में संयुक्त राष्ट्र के अन्तर्गत ही लोकतन्त्र के सिद्धान्त को लागू करने की आवश्यकता पर बल दिया तथा 1994 ई० में महासभा के 49वें सत्र में सामान्य बहस के समय परिषद् की स्थायी सदस्यता के लिए अपना दावा भी किया। महासभा में भारतीय प्रतिनिधिमण्डल के नेता ने कहा कि जनसंख्या, अर्थव्यवस्था का आकार, अन्तर्राष्ट्रीय शान्ति और सुरक्षा की स्थापना में भारत को सुरक्षा परिषद् का स्थायी सदस्य होना अनिवार्य समझा जाना चाहिए।

उपर्युक्त विवेचन से स्पष्ट है कि भारत और संयुक्त राष्ट्र के सम्बन्ध संयुक्त राष्ट्र की स्थापना से ही मैत्रीपूर्ण तथा सहयोगी रहे हैं। भारत ने आर्थिक, सामाजिक, सांस्कृतिक तथा सैन्य क्षेत्रों में सराहनीय कार्य किया है। विशेषतः संयुक्त राष्ट्र की विशिष्ट एजेन्सियों के तत्त्वावधान में एशिया, अफ्रीका तथा लैटिन अमेरिका के पिछड़े हुए देशों को दी गई सहायता तथा मानवीय अधिकारों की घोषणा में भारत ने पूर्ण सहयोग दिया है। आर्थिक दृष्टि से अभावग्रस्त जातियों, समुदायों के सामाजिक स्तर को ऊँचा उठाने में भारत का योगदान प्रशंसनीय रहा है।

भारत की स्वतन्त्रता के समय विश्व ऐंग्लो-अमेरिकन शक्ति गुट तथा रूसी शक्ति गुट में बंटा हुआ था।

सही विकल्प है (A) 15

Correct option is (c) 1971