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1. Soil is the result of denudation of rocks.

2. The rock surface is eroded due to factors like temperature, rain, snow, air, vegetation and insects and it turns into powdery form. Thus, it forms the land layer.

3. In this land layer, there are gravels, smaller stones, pebbles, soil particles etc. which are known as ‘Regolith’.

4. It contains only mineral contents. Then the biotic matter, air and water are mixed with it. Finally, soil is formed out of it.

5. The process of soil formation is a long term process.

सही विकल्प है (A) 16

सही विकल्प है (B) वास्तुपाल

सही उत्तर है 62

सही विकल्प है (A) अजमेर

सही विकल्प है (C) 30

Various types of rocks are formed due to different processes. Rocks can be divided into three main categories on the basis of their formation. 

These are:

1. Igneous rocks
2. Stratified Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks.

सही विकल्प है (B) 20

हठीसिंह का जैन देरासर, कुंभारियाजी, शंखेश्वर, सिद्धिगिरि, शेजेजयगिरि पालीताणा आदि शिल्प-स्थापत्य के उत्तम नमूने है ।

1. Soil is the result of denudation of rocks. The rock surface is eroded due to factors like temperature, rain, snow, air, vegetation and insects in result it turns into powdery form. Thus it forms the land layer.

2. In this land layer there are gravels, smaller stones, pebbles, soil particles etc., which are known as ‘Regolith’. It contains only mineral contents.

3. The biotic matter, air and water are mixed with it. Finally, soil is formed out of this mixture.

(D) सिद्धक्षेत्र, मधुवन

• Possession of a fort made it possible to keep an eye on the surrounding area.
• In case of a foreign invasion, it was possible to protect the people by taking shelter in the fort. It was possible to stock the fort with food grains, war materials, ammunition and military garrison.
• Hence forts were of great importance.

खजुराहो बुंदेलखंड के चंदेल राजपूतों की राजधानी थी ।

ई.स. की दूसरी सदी के उत्तरार्ध से चौथी सदी के पूर्वार्ध तक बनी थी ।

1. Animal husbandry
2. Forestry
3. Pisciculture

सही विकल्प है (A) बृहदेश्वर

सही विकल्प है (C) गोवा

• The Portuguese of Goa
• The Siddi of Janjira
• The British factors of Surat
• The Rajapur.

About 48.9 percent.

High Yeilding Variety.

It is an agricultural strategy used to increase the yield of crops.

13.9 percent shares of agriculture was in GDP in 2011-2012.

Limited to a few crops only.

• Netaji
• Palkar Prataprao
• Gujar
• Hambirrao Mohite.

Share of agriculture was in GDP in 2014-15 is 17.4%.

Increase in the production of foodgrains.

India is the largest producer of pulses.

24 % is the present share of agriculture in national income of India.

Providing water to land by human made resources is called irrigation. Irrigation is necessary in order to increase the productivity of agriculture. Irrigational facilities have been extended. Several major and minor irrigation projects were launched in the country. In 1951 hardly 17% of total land was covered by irrigational facilities which has now extended up to 34% of land. Multiple crop system will be possible only through irrigational facilities.

Modern technology.

Underground water.

After the year 1965-66, there has takeh place a tremendous rise in the production of foodgrains due to green revolution. In the year 1966-67, the year of green revolution, the production of foodgrains increased to 950 lakh tonnes. In 2017-18, the production of foodgrains was 2775 lakh tonnes. This resulted in increased per capita availability of food. It also helped in the reduction of imports of foodgrains. Thus green revolution helped a lot in solving the food problem in India.

A big part of our total labour force is engaged in agriculture. According to 2017-18, 46,2 percent of India’s working population is engaged in agriculture. In other countries like in England only 2% and in America, only 2% of the working population is engaged in agriculture. It indicates their economic development.

Modem technology, HYV seeds, etc.

The main sources of irrigation in India are :

1. Water above the land. It includes rain water, rivers, canals, ponds, lakes etc.

2. Underground water. This water is obtained by digging wells and tubewells. These sources of irrigation in India are divided in the following categories :

• Big Irrigation Projects. More than 10 thousand hectares of land is irrigated under these projects.
• Medium Irrigation Projects. These projects irrigate 2 thousand to 10 thousand hectares of land.
• Small Irrigation Projects. These projects irrigate less than 2 thousand hectares of land.

Even after seven decades of Independence, the agricultural sector is not completely developed. There are so many problems which are responsible for its backwardness. The problems are as follows:

1. Problem of Marketing: The marketing system of agricultural products is quite poor in India. As a result, farmers are unable to get fair prices of their crops. They sell their products in villages at lower prices and therefore, they remain poor. Urban markets are far away from the villages and transportation facilities are not developed there.

2. Problem of Credit Facilities: Credit is one of the main problems of Indian farmers. Farmers are unable to get easy loans from banks and co-operative societies. This forces them to get loans from local moneylenders at exorbitant rate of interest. Thus they are caught in debt trap.

3. Problem of Rural Indebtedness: Indebtedness is also the main problem of Indian agriculture. Indian farmers always remain in debt. They take loans for cultivation and even for the sale of their produce. In the words of M.L. Darling, “Indian peasant is born in debt, lives in debt and dies in debt.”

4. Problem of Weak Cattle: Due to the lack of modernisation in the agricultural sector, the problem of weak cattle is responsible for the low productivity. Cattle used in Indian agriculture are not given required fodder and their death rates are also high due to overwork. As a result, farmers have to buy more cattle, which increases their expenditure along with the cost of production.

5. Problem of Illiteracy: Indian famers suffer from illiteracy on a large-scale. They have no knowledge to increase production and yield.

6. Problem of Disguised Unemployment: A larger number of Indian population is engaged in agriculture because the industrial and service sectors do not absorb them. The productivity of disguised unemployed remains low. Farmers are unable to gain surplus yield from their fields due to disguised unemployment.

1. Increase in regional imbalances.
2. Benefits to big farmers only.

Following are the mainland reforms of India:

• Abolition of the zamindari system.
• Acts have been passed to improve the land tenure system.
• Maximum ceiling on landholdings.
• Consolidation of holdings.
• Co-operative farming.
• Bhoodhan Movement.

There are various factors responsible for Green Revolution in India. The important among them are:

1. Wonder Seeds: Agricultural revolution is primarily due to the miracle of new wonder seeds which have raised agricultural yield per acre to incredible heights.

2. Chemical Fertilisers: The increasing use of chemical fertilizers has played a key role in the breakthrough. Fertilizer consumption increased from a mere 2.92 lakh tonnes in 1960-61 to 34.1 lakh tonnes in 2007-08 and more spectacularly to 255.76 lakh tonnes in 2017-18.

3. Multiple Cropping: Thanks to new seeds maturing early, it has become possible to obtain three and even four crops instead of two from the same plot in a year.

4. Modern Equipment and Machinery: Modern machinery and implements like tractors, harvesters, pumping sets, tube-wells, etc. are being increasingly used and are replacing the bullocks wherever possible.

5. Price Incentives: The Government has taken care to offer support prices to the
growers so that minimum reasonable returns for their labor and investment are assured to them. –

6. Extension of Irrigation: The irrigation system of the country is being speedily
extended to assure adequate water supply, especially in areas where new agricultural strategy is being applied. .

7. Processing, Storage and Marketing Facilities: These facilities are being improved and extended so that the increased agricultural production is put to profitable use.

Indian agriculture is quite backward. It has so many problems. These problems can be divided into following three categories:

1. Human Problems
2. Institutional Problems
3. Technical Problems.

1. Human Problems: Heavy pressure of population on agriculture is one of the major
causes of backwardness of Indian agriculture. This pressure has resulted in the problem of subdivision, fragmentation and disguised unemployment.

Social atmosphere has been a great obstacle in the development of agriculture. Indian farmers are illiterate, fatalist, superstitious and conservative. On account of ignorance and casteism, Indian farmers are used to fight on petty issues.

2. Institutional Problems: Small size of holdings, land tenure system are the main institutional problems. Most of the farms are very small in India. The average size of farms is 2-3 hectares. In Punjab the average holding is of 3.77 hectares.

3. Technical Problems: Inadequate irrigation facilities, old agricultural implements, traditional technique of cultivation, lack of improved seeds, lack of manure, defective agricultural marketing system, diseases of crops and attacks of pests, lack of credit facilities and weak cattle are the main technical problems in the developmental path of Indian agriculture.

Indian agriculture has been the source of supply of raw materials to our leading industries.

1. Increase in the production of foodgrains.
2. Improvement in the living standards of farmers.

1. Abolition of intermediaries.
2. Consolidation of landholdings.

The role of the govt, in agricultural development may be summarised as follows :

1. Land Reforms. Land reforms play an important role in the development of agriculture. After the independence, the following land reforms have been implemented :
   (a) Abolition of Zamindari System
   (b) Tenancy reforms
   (c) Consolidation of land holdings.
   (d) Ceiling on land holdings.
   (e) Development of Co-operative farming.
2. Increase in irrigation facilities.
3. Improvements in the distribution system.
4. Special emphasis has been laid on agricultural research and development.
5. Improvement in agricultural marketing.
6. Increase in credit facilities.
7. Emphasis on mechanization of agriculture.
8. Development of high-yielding varieties.
9. New measures to conserve water and soil.

Moreover, special agricultural programmes are arranged over the radio and television for the benefit of the farmers.

1. Use of high-yielding variety of seeds.
2. Use of chemical fertilizers.

Use of modern agricultural tools.

Shivaji Maharaj described the merchants as “Merchants are the ornaments of the kingdom and the glory of the king”.

Shivaji knew that a kingdom does not prosper if the trade does not increase.

Necessary goods could be brought in the kingdom.

Goods were available in plenty.

Prosperity of trade increased the wealth.

1. Emphasis on scientific farming.
2. Land reforms.

1. Shortage of irrigation facilities.
2. Shortage of good seeds and chemical fertilizers.