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Inbreeding exposes harmful recessive genes that are eliminated by selection leading to accumulation of superior genes Continued inbreeding reduces fertility and productivity (Inbreeding depression).

(c) Genetic recombination

Non–synchronisation of stigma receptivity and pollen release, different positions, self-incompatibility,unisexual flowers /xenogamy.

The synergids have special cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip called filiform apparatus. They guide the entry of pollen tubes into the synergids.

The Concept of ecosystem: A systematic and orderly study of organisms living in a geographic unit and the interrelations of that unit is called ecological mechanism. According to A.G. Tansley(1935), “The system in which the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment are inter – related, is called the ecosystem”.

Other definitions related to ecosystem are given as follows:

According to R.L. Lindeman (1942): “The system that is produced by physical – chemical – biological processes in a particular time unit of any magnitude, is called the ecosystem”.

According to Fasbert (1963): “The ecosystem is a functional and interactive system, whose structure is formed by one or more organisms and their effective environment”.

According to Odum (1971): “The ecosystem is the basic functional unit of such organisms and their environment, which constantly interacts with other ecosystems and their components”

According to Peter Haggett (1975): “Ecosystem is such an ecological system in which plants and organisms are linked to their environment through the nutritional chain.”

According to Arthur N. Strahler (1976): “The ecosystem is a group of components that interact with groups of organisms. This activity involves investing in substances and energy, which create biological structures.”

According to Park (1980): “The ecosystem is the gross of all the natural organisms and elements within a certain area.”

An ecosystem is the basic unit of ecological study whose size and extent can vary. For example, if one ecosystem is an entire global supplemental ecosystem, then the second ecosystem may be as small as a cage built in a zoo or limited to a lake. Ecosystems can be either natural or man-made.

The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are controlled by the ecology of that system and they remain active in a certain process. Energy is required to stay active. This energy makes an ecosystem dynamic. This entire process is called energy flow. This energy flow keeps the environment naturally controlled. As a result, the balance in that ecosystem is maintained.

According to A.G. Tansley, “The system in which the biotic and abiotic factors of the environment are inter – connected is called the ecosystem”. The use of the term ‘ecosystem’ in the study of biosphere by Tansley, had attracted the attention of the entire world.

a. Numbers/volume 

b. Coverage/area 

c. Biomass/area 

d. Numbers/area 

e. Weight/area

a. By physical counting, percent cover or total biomass, from relative density, counting pug marks, counting faecal pellets.

b. Status of habitat, whether competition for survival exists or not, whether population is increasing or declining, natality, mortality, emigration, immigration.

Species of Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, etc. The cry gene of B. thuringiensis was found to express proteinaceous toxin (Bt-toxin) inside the bacterial cells. When specific insects ingest the toxin, they are killed. The toxin denatures the epithelium of gut by creating many holes at alkaline pH (7.5 - 8). The cry genes expressing Bt-toxin were isolated from B, thtrringiensis and incorporated into crop plants like cotton. This brings about the control of cotton bollworms. In India Bt-cotton was permitted to sow at large scale in fields.

Cotton bollworms destroy the cotton bolls. Bacillus thuringienesis has Bt toxin genes. These genes produce toxic proteins that kill the pests. Bt toxins are initially inactive protoxins but after ingestion by the insect their inactive toxin becomes active due to the alkaline pH of the gut. The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells thus killing the insects. Specific Bt toxins were isolated from Bacillus thuringienesisand incorporated into the cotton plants to make them pest resistant.

Bt cotton contains inactive toxin protein or protoxin. These are insecticidal protein in the form of crystal protein. Once the insect ingests its the inactive protoxins is converted into active form due to alkaline pH in the gut, which solubilise the crystals. The activated toxins bind to the surface of midgut epithelial cells, thus creating pores which causes cell swelling and lysis, eventually leading to the death of the insect pest.

1. Increase in the cost of different goods. 

2. Increase of cost of exports. 

3. Decrease in the value of money. 

4. Change of roles played by government i.e., provision of subsidized fertilizers, food, development of infrastructure facilities etc.

1. Maintenance of law and order. 

2. Provision of education facilities. 

3. Looking after of health and sanitation. 

4. Construction of roads,, highways, dams, irrigation projects. 

5. Establishment of factories etc.

Please scan the some of the wrappers of Biscuits, toothpaste, soaps, etc. with MF The MRP that are printed on the wrappers are fixed by the manufactures. The Manufactures incude the cost of production, tax, VAT, commissions, transportation cost and profits etc. From them retailer bought the goods on wholesale and he mix up again transportation cost, tax, vat and his profit. In that retailer get more profits because he bought the good with low cost he sold more cost. Again he mix up the VAT & Tax also profit to him.

Given , binary operation is a * b = a^b

Let, 2, 3 ∈ N

So, 2 * 3 = 2³ = 8 and 3 * 2 = 3² = 9 

2 * 3 ≠ 3 * 2

So, '*' is not commutative on N

Also, 2 * (2 * 3) = 2 * 2³ = 2 * 8 = 2⁸ = 256

and (2 * 2) * 3 = 2² * 3 = 4 * 3 = 4³ = 64

So, 2 * (2 * 3) ≠ (2 * 2) * 3

So, '*' is not associative on N

(C) the stopping potential will increase

Avogadro’s Hypothesis: This law was given by Avogadro in 1811. According to this law, “Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.” 

Volume = a constant X Number of Moles (Temperature and pressure constant). The converse of Avogadro’s law is also true. Equal number of molecules of all gases occupy equal volume’s under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. It follows that one gram molecular mass of any gas (containing 6.023 x 10²³ molecules) will occupy the same volume under the same conditions. The volume occupied by one gram molecular mass of any gas at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg is 2.4 dm³ (liters) is called the gram molecular volume or simply molar volume.

Cell edge a = 5.0Å = 5.0 × 10 m = 5 × 10^-8 cm

Density = 3.8 g/cm³ 

Molecular mass of FeO = 56 + 16 = 72 u

N_A = 6.022 × 10²³

d = \(\frac{ZM}{N_Aa^3}\)

Z = \(\frac{dN_Aa^3}{M}\)

= \(\frac{3.8\times6.022\times10^{23}}{72}\times\)(5 × 10^-8)³

= 3.97 = 4

Each cell contain 4 FeO molecule every FeO molecule contain one Fe²⁺ and one O^2- ion. 

So no. of Fe²⁺ ion =4 no.of O^2- ion = 4.

1st April to 31st March.

(a) 1st April to 31st March

(a) Total expenditure = Total receipts

1. The conventional notion of social security is that the government would make periodic payments to look after people in their old age, ill-health, disability and poverty.

2. The given paragraph suggests that, the idea should change from writing a cheque for the beneficiary to institutional arrangement to care for beneficiaries.

It will enable them to look after themselves to a large extent.

3. The write-a-cheque model of social security i is a legacy from the rich world.

4. Growing life expectancy, increasing urbanization and resultant migration are the features of India that make the traditional model of social security ill suited for the economy.

Balanced budget is that budget in which Government Receipt is equal to the 1 Government Expenditure.

There are three types of government budget: 

(1) Balanced Budget, 

(2) Surplus Budget and

(3) Deficit Budget.

(1) Balanced Budget : Balanced budget is a situation in which estimated revenue of the government during the year is equal to its anticipated expenditure.

For individuals and families, it is always advisable to have a balanced budget, s Classical economist advocated Balanced Budget, which was based on the policy of “live-with-in means”. According to them i government’s revenue should not fall short of expenditure.

They favoured balanced budget because they believed that government should not interfere in economic activities and should just concentrate on the maintenance of internal and external security and provision of basic economic and social overheads.

Till 1930 generally accepted norm was that of ‘Sound Finance’ which implied that public authority should balance its budget. But the great depression of 1930’s proved that Balanced Budget was not a guarantee of stability and full employment. It was then realised that the government can play an effective role in recovery of the economy. This is because if governments expenditure exceeds its revenue, it will generate additional demand which will accelerate the pace of economic growth. It was Keynes who gave a new approach to the budgetary policy, he replaced the norm of Balanced Budget with the norm of functional finance.

(2) Surplus Budget: A surplus budget implies when the expected government revenue is greater than proposed government expenditure.

Surplus budget shows the financial soundness of the government. When there is too much inflation, the government can adopt the policy of surplus budget as it reduces aggregate demand by spending less than its income.

In periods of inflation, although there is greater employment, there is also a tendency for prices to rise rapidly. This can be checked. The inflationary gap can be corrected by lowering the level of effective demand in the economy. It can be corrected by increasing taxes. This will reduce the purchasing power of the people but increase the revenue of the government. Thus aggregate demand will fall. The inflationary gap can be corrected by lowering the level of public expenditure.

When Government reduces its expenditure the revenue with government is in excess of its expenditure.

In modern times, governments responsibilities have increased. Surplus budget will mean that the government instead of spending for the welfare of the people is busy earning and accumulating wealth. Hence, surplus budget practically is non-existing.

3. Deficit Budget: Deficit budget is one where the estimated government expenditure is more than expected revenue. Today almost all the countries of the world follow deficit budget instead of surplus or balanced budget. Deficit Budget solves the problem of recession and depression which occurs mainly due to lack of effective demand. Increase in total expenditure of the government, increases employment and income of the people. As a result, the aggregate demand for consumer goods increases. Increase in total expenditure tends to expand aggregate economic activity in the economy.

a) Market Loans (loans raised by the government from the public) 

b) Borrowings by the Government 

c) Loans received from foreign governments and International Financial Institutions.

Public debt policy of the government plays an important role in public finance.

Public debt refers to borrowings of the government Raising debt loan is the most common activity of a government because in a welfare state, government expenditure generally exceeds government revenue.

Public debt is classified into two types:

(1) Internal debt : It refers to borrowings of  the government to raise fund within the economy. In case of internal debt, domestic currency is used. It is less complex to manage internal debt. E.g. borrowings from RBI, nationalized banks and business organisations within a country.

(2) External debt : It refers to borrowings of the government to raise fund outside the economy. In case of external debt, foreign currency is used. It is more complex to manage external debt. E.g. borrowings from foreign government and international organisation like IMF, World Bank, etc. Government requires fund for investing in production as well as for making provision of infrastructure facilities.

Thus, public debt is more popular source of revenue for the government in the modern times.

Not paying the actual amount as well as the interest amount of loan.

Primary deficit is calculated as follows: Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit – Interest payments.

Surplus budget is that budget in which Government Receipts are more than the Government Expenditure.

Plan expenditure of Railways and Posts

Developmental expenditure : The expenditure which results in generation of employment and price stability, it is known as developmental expenditure.

It consists of expenditure on education, social welfare, industrial development, etc. It leads to an increase in production. It is s productive in nature.

Non-developmental expenditure : It is that government expenditure which does not yield any direct productive impact on the economy. It is mainly in form of expenses on administration costs, war expenses, etc. It is unproductive in nature. It is observed that, since last 30 years, there is a tremendous growth in the total public expenditure of a country because modern government performs many functions for the social and economic development of a country.

The loan, borrowings made by the Government from public, organizations, institutions is known as public debt. When the expenditure of the Government is more than its revenue, Government will go for public borrowings.

Classification of Public Debt: The public debt can be divided as follows : 

a. Internal debt: It is debt borrowed by the Government from the sources available within the country. It includes internal borrowings, market loans, all treasury bills issued by RBI, State Governments, Commercial banks, etc. it is also known as loan taken on negotiable securities.

b. External debt: It refers to all those borrowings of Government from sources available outside the country. It includes loans taken by Government against non-negotiable instruments, non-interest bearing securities which are issued by international institutions like IMF, World Bank, IBRD, ADB, IDA, etc. Loans taken from IMF trust fund is also a part of external debt.

c. Other outstanding liabilities: It includes short term loans, loans taken against small savings schemes, Public provident fund, State provident contributions, Income tax annuity deposit schemes, interest bearing reserve funds, etc.

Public Debt as a burden: When the Government borrows more money, the public debt increases and the burden of payment of interest falls on the Government. Then the Government has to impose more taxes on the people. When more tax is levied on people, the disposable personal income of consumers falls and this will lead to reduction in consumption, savings and also national income at the end. As a result, the growth rate of an economy will be affected. So, public debt is regarded as a burden on the Government and people.

In 1950, public expenditure was Rs. 900 crores and in 2004 it was around Rs.5,05,000 crores. This drastic increase in public expenditure is due to following main reasons. 

They are:

• Rapid growth of population. 
• Serious effects of urbanization. 
• Increase in defence expenditure. 
• Increase in subsidies, grants and aids. 
• Increase in administration expenditure. 
• More developmental and constructive projects undertaken. 
• Inflation to a certain extent. 
• Natural and manmade calamities. 
• Poverty and unemployment. 
• Effects of democracy.

It is that deficit which includes budget deficit plus borrowing from the market, other liabilities of the Government. Fiscal Deficit = Budget Deficit + market borrowings + other liabilities. It also refers to the excess of Government’s total expenditure over its total revenue.

i) Expenditure on defence 

ii) Interest payments

It is the difference between revenue receipts and revenue expenditure. It is that deficit where Revenue Receipts are less than Revenue Expenditure.

Revenue Deficit: It is the difference between revenue receipts and revenue expenditure. It is that deficit where Revenue Receipts are less than Revenue Expenditure. It is the excess of Government’s expenditure over its revenue. 

It can be expressed as follows:

Revenue Deficit = Revenue Expenditure – Revenue Receipts.

Fiscal Deficit: It is that deficit which includes budget deficit plus borrowing from the market and other liabilities of the Government. It is the excess of Government’s total expenditure over its total revenue. It can be expressed as follows:

Fiscal Deficit = Total Expenditure – Revenue Receipts + NonDebt receipts.

Primary Deficit: It is that deficit which is the difference between fiscal deficit and interest paid by the Government. It is calculated by finding the difference between Government’s total income and expenditure (interest earned and interest paid is excluded). Revenue deficit and capital deficits are two types of primary deficits. The Primary deficit indicates the borrowing requirements of the Government to meet fiscal deficit excluding interest payments. It can be expressed as follows:

Primary Deficit = Fiscal Deficit – Interest payments.

Deficit reduction: The deficit can be reduced through the following ways:

• By increasing direct tax collection more effectively. 
• By reducing public expenditure through efficient administration. 
• By undertaking disinvestment (raising revenue through sale of shares/stocks of public sector undertakings).

These are the four different concepts of Budget Deficit. 

a. Budget Deficit:- It is the difference between the total expenditure, current revenue and net internal and external capital receipts of the government. 

Formulae: B.D = B.E > B.R (B.D= Budget Deficit, B.E. Budget Expenditure B.R= Budget Revenue 

b. Fiscal Deficit:- It is the difference between the total expenditure of the government, the revenue receipts PLUS those capital receipts which finally accrue to the government. 

Formulae: F.D = B.E - B.R (B.E > B.R. other than borrowings) F.D=Fiscal Deficit,

B.E= Budget Expenditure, B.R. = Budget Receipts. 

c. Revenue Deficit: - It is the excess of governments revenue expenditures over revenue receipts. 

Formulae: R.D= R.E – R.R., When R.E > R.R., R.D= Revenue Deficit, R.E= Revenue Expenditure, R.R. = Revenue Receipts. 

d. Primary Deficit: - It is the fiscal deficit MINUS Interest payments. 

Formulae: P.D= F.D – I.P, P.D= Primary Deficit, F.D= Fiscal Deficit, I.P= Interest Payment. 

A Surplus Budget is one where the estimated revenues are greater than the Estimated expenditures. 

The major objectives of a Government Budget are as follows: 

• To re-allocate the resources for better socio-economic progress. 
• To redistribute the income and wealth and thereby to reduce inequalities through various social security schemes, public works, economic subsidies etc. 
• To prevent economic fluctuations for maintaining economic stability. 
• To manage public enterprises efficiently and to have control over monopoly firms and to attain social welfare.

a) Budget Deficit 

b) Revenue Deficit 

c) Primary Deficit and 

d) Fiscal Deficit

These below are the main objectives of the Government Budget. 

Activities to secure reallocation of resources: - The Government has to reallocate resources with social and economic considerations. 

Redistributive Activities: - The Government redistributes income and wealth to reduce inequalities. 

Stabilizing Activities: - The Government tries to prevent business fluctuations and maintain economic stability. 

Management of Public Enterprises: - Government undertakes commercial activities that are of the nature of natural Monopolies, heavy manufacturing etc., through its public enterprises. 

These below are the main components of the Government Budget. 

They are--- 

a. Budget Receipts 

b. Budget Expenditure

Budget receipts may be classified as: 

a. Revenue Receipts and 

b. Capital Receipts 

Revenue Receipts may be classified as: 

a. Tax Revenue and 

b. Non-tax Revenue Budget 

Expenditure may be classified as ------- 

a. Revenue Expenditure and 

Capital Expenditure

It is a tax whose incidence and impact fall on different persons.

Direct Tax: - 

These are those taxes levied immediately on the property and Income of persons, and those that are paid directly by the consumers to the state. 

Examples: Income Tax, Wealth Tax, Corporation Tax etc. 

Indirect Taxes: 

These are those taxes that affect the income and property of persons through their consumption expenditure. Indirect taxes are those taxes levied on one person but paid by another person. 

Examples: Customs duties, excise duties, sales tax, service tax etc. 

It is a tax whose incidence and impact fall on different persons.

Deflationary Gap refers to a situation when AD falls short of AS at full employment.

When Aggregate Demand is higher than Aggregate Supply at full employment, the gap is called Inflationary Gap.