Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Every evidence we get from the sources of history has to be tested because tests determine the reliability of the source. Only with the help of the evidence past events are put in a proper sequence and a historical account is written.

गैसीय अपशिष्ट पदार्थ के स्त्रोत हैं- लकड़ी, कोयला, कारखाने, परिवहन के साधन, मरे हुए। जीव-जंतु, अँगीठी, सिगरेट, बीड़ी आदि।

Sources of history are of three types,

• Material sources 
• Written sources 
• Oral sources.

The future depends on past events.

i. It is not possible to conduct experiments and to recreate the events that happened in the past. 

ii. Therefore the method of presenting history is different from that of other science.

मनुष्य एवं अन्य जीवों के दैनिक क्रिया-कलापों के फलस्वरूप निकलने वाले अनुपयोगी पदार्थ, अपशिष्ट पदार्थ कहलाते हैं।

(a) Terms showing types of states: Rajya, Swarajya, Bhavjya, Vairajya, Maharajya, Samrajya, and Prameshthya were the different types of states that existed during the 6th B.C.E.

(b) King’s installation: A ‘Raja’ was expected to be a ‘Kshtriya’ and according to the existing norms, a Brahmin was expected to refrain from accepting the position of a Raja. The position of Raja was generally hereditary. However, at times, a king was elected by the people.

(c) Authority of the king: The coronation of a king gave him absolute authority over his subjects. He was the one to decide the amount of taxes to be collected from them. He was the ultimate lord of all the land in his kingdom and so he could donate any portion of that land according to his wish. Nevertheless, his power was not totally unrestricted.

(d) Decision-making: The king made his decisions by seeking advice from his officials such as Purohita, Senani, Amatya, Gramani, etc. Besides, there was an assembly of people of all classes. When it assembled everybody present could participate in the decisionmaking process. There were times when people’s assemblies made a king steps down from the throne.

कारखानों से निकले जल को उचित उपचार करने के बाद ही नदियों में बहाना चाहिए जिससे कि नदियों का जल दूषित न हो।

(c) To built a strong industrial base

Correct Answer is Daryush – III

• The Persians invaded Greece but were defeated. Thereafter the conflict between the Achaemenids and Greeks continued over a prolonged time. 
• An impact of this conflict was to manifest in the way of the invasion of Persia by Alexander III, the King of Macedonia. 
• Thus, Alexander invaded Persia.

The study of history makes it possible for us to study what is and what is not favourable for the progress of human society.

History attempts to find out ansers to many questions by studying the thought process of past societies, their actions and the consequence. On this basis it accordingly guides us to a better future.

(क) उद्योगों से विभिन्न प्रकार के अपशिष्ट पदार्थ निकलते हैं। (✓)
(ख) अपशिष्ट पदार्थों से हमारा पर्यावरण दूषित होता है। (✓)
(ग) अपशिष्ट पदार्थ ठोस, द्रव और गैस के रूप में होते हैं। (✓)
(घ) घरेलू कूड़े-कचरे का निस्तारण आज प्रदूषण की समस्या नहीं है। (✗)
(ङ) प्लास्टिक एवं पॉलीथीन आसानी से सड़ती है। (✗)

The sources of history are of three types:

1. Material sources – coins, pots, forts. 

2. Written sources – letters, inscriptions. 

3. Oral sources – traditional stories and songs.

मल-मूत्र के उचित निस्तारण तथा गंदगी से बचने के लिए प्रत्येक घर में शौचालय होना आवश्यक है।

The Pulsating Theory states that the Universe expands and then contracts continuously. The repeated expansion and contraction is like a ‘Pulse’.

The woolen and leather factories became prominent in Kanpur.

Correct option is (a) Herodotus

• Alexander invaded the Indian subcontinent and conquered some kingdoms from Afghanistan to SindhPunjab. 
• He, however, could not establish his rule there for a long time.
• Alexander became the king of Macedonia in 334 B.C.E. He defeated emperor Daryush III in 331 B.C.E
• After conquering the region of Kabul, he reached the foothills of the Hindukush mountains. 
• Then he camped at a place called Nicaea situated on Uttarapatha. Ambhi welcomed Alexander and sought friendship with him. 
• Alexander conquered almost all kingdoms in Kabul, Sindh, and Punjab. 
• On the bank of Jhelum, Alexander and King Porus confronted each other and there was a fierce battle between them. 
• Porus was defeated but Alexander and his army were greatly influenced by his valour. 
• Alexander’s soldiers had lost spirit due to the frequent battles and refused to march forward. Alexander was forced to return. 
• Before returning, Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab.

• The Persian supremacy prevailed in the Indian subcontinent for at least two centuries. 
• The Persian rulers set up an administrative system. 
• Every conquered region was annexed to their territory as a satrapy and a satrap (governor) was appointed as its chief administrator. 
• A newly opened waterway for the transport between Persia and the Indian subcontinent facilitated trade between Achaemenid provinces in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent and the regions of SindhPunjab. 
• The ivory and teak exported from India had great demand in the Persian markets. The architects, sculptors, and other artisans lost the royal patronage so they had to move out in search of work. They migrated to India. 
• They received royal patronage in the court of emperor Ashoka. Their style is reflected in the stone pillars erected by Emperor Ashoka. 
• Thus, the sculptural art in ancient India has its roots in the Persian; and accordingly, in the Greek sculptural style.

• Alexander invaded India and conquered some kingdoms from Afghanistan to Sindh-Punjab. He could not however establish his rule for a long time.
• After his confrontation with Porus, Alexander proceeded in the direction of Chenab and Ravi. 
• He conquered the kingdoms on the way and reached the bank of Beas. Alexander’s soldiers had lost spirit and they refused to march forward. 
• Before setting on the return journey. Alexander handed over the regions in Punjab to Porus and those in Sindh to Ambhi. 
• He appointed Greek satraps and in 325 B.C.E. 
• Alexander died in Babylon. After his death, Chandragupta Maurya established his vast empire from Bihar to Afghanistan.

• Buddhist literature and writings of the Greek historians give information about Taxila. 
• There were several learned individuals (Acharyas) staying in Taxila. 
• Many students from various regions of the Indian subcontinent were attracted to Taxila because of the fame of the acharyas. 
• Thus, Taxila had become a great center of education. 
• Thereby it had assumed the magnitude of a natural university.

1. Alexander

2. Pliny

3. Alexandros

1. History studies the events of the past. 

2. History gives information about past societies, their actions and their consequences. 

3. The study of history makes it possible for us to study what is favourable for the progress of human society. 

4. History provides humans with guidelines about how we should behave today in order to shape a good future. History inspires and motivates us and is thus very important.

The Steady-State Theory states that the Galaxies are continuously being formed, filling empty spaces in the Universe. 

The oldest industry in India was Textile industry.

A . Textile Industry.

A.Textile Industry

1. Ariane

2. Herodotus

3. Machinery

• Herodotus was the first historian who collected information-seeking answers to a particular question and then put it in chronological order. While doing this he did not bring in notions like a god, human destiny, etc. 
• Putting historical events in a chronological sequence became an essential theme of history writing. 
• This theme proved to be fundamental in the development of history writing as an independent discipline. 
• Therefore, Herodotus is said to be the father of historiography.

The Earliest evidence of planned hunting and butchery of large animals are found at two sites. 

1. Boxgrove in England is dated to about 5,00,000 years ago. 

2. Schoningen in Germany is dated to about 4,00,000 years ago.

Textile industry was the oldest industry in India.

Hydrogen and Carbon which were present in the atmosphere were responsible for that.

Chimpanzees and Bonobos are the closest relatives of the human beings. 

The two divergent theories are: 

1. The Replacement or African origin theory. 

2. The Regional Continuity theory.

(b) match box

The species belonging to the Hominidae family are called Hominids. e.g. Humans, Chimpanzees, and Bonobos. The change in climate or ice age had reduced the forests area and they were forced to come on to land to procure food and they gradually adapted to live on land. 

About 700 million years ago, the basic chemicals in the earth’s atmosphere, namely – Hydrogen and Carbon combined to form life in the water. This slowly evolved into primitive water plants. They began to grow and occupy the shallow and warm seas. The water plants gradually adapted themselves and began to encroach on to the land. About 500 million years ago, Protozoa originated in water. 

It is considered to be the first form of animal life. Then single-cell beings became multicellular. The primitive life forms like photosynthetic bacteria released oxygen into the atmosphere as they evolved, which made earth more habitable for higher life forms to originate.

Water creatures appeared. Insects and Amphibians came into existence. The Amphibians were capable of existing on land and water as well. Then the reptiles appeared and some of the species among them adapted to become birds. All this diversified life forms took about 400 million years to evolve.

Mammals evolved about 200 million years ago. Horses, Camels, Dogs, etc. evolved around 50 million years ago. Primates made their appearance 36 million years ago. Hominoids evolved and human-like creatures came upon earth’s surface about 5.6 million years ago.

1. The super family Hominoidea branched into Hominidae and Hylobatidae families. The • species of the respective families are called Hominids and Hylobatids. The Hominids, that is, Humans, Chimpanzees and Bonobos, Gorillas and Orang-utans, diverged away from the Hylobatids that is Gibbons.

2. The Hominidae family branched into Homininae and Ponginae subfamilies. The species of the respective subfamilies were called Hominines and Pongines. The Hominines that is, Humans, Chimpanzees and Bonobos and Gorillas diverged away from the Pongines that is the Orang-utans.

3. The Homininae subfamily branched into Hominini and Gorillini tribes. Humans, Chimpanzees, and bonobos branched away from the Gorillas.

4. The Hominini tribe branched into Genus Homo and Genus Pan. That is, the ancestral human species branched away from the Chimpanzees and the Bonobos. As such, Chimpanzees and Bonobos are the closest relatives of the Humans.

The evolution of genus Homo from the super family Hominoidea took about 30 million years. The emergence of genus Homo brought humanlike creatures on the earth’s surface about 5.6 million years ago. Today we are living in a time that is relatively warm compared to the last 6 to 8 million years.

The weather and climate of the earth has played an important role in the origin and evolution and the existence of various species. Human species evolved larger and complex brains to overcome the environmental challenges and survive against physically powerful animals.

The size of the brain in the Homo habilis was 600 cubic centimeters, which was only slightly larger than that of Chimpanzees. The homo Erectus had a brain size of 800 -1100 cc, the Neanderthal 1200 -1900 cc and the Homo sapiens (wise man) of today about 1400cc.

It is more than twice the size of the brains of Chimpanzees or Gorillas. The growth in the brain size induced many activities like improved vision, upright posture, bipedalism, toolmaking, use of fire, planned and skilled hunting, storing food and language. 

These activities helped in the development of the brain. Hominoids lived on trees which provided them protection from the predators. The Hominoids were food gatherers and not meat-eaters. Then, they adapted to land-dwelling. They began to use caves and extended stone boulders as shelters. The Neanderthal man was the earliest cave dweller. The shortage of food made them to scavenge for food.

The above activities made them gradually develop an upright posture and consequently the bipedal motion. This was required for survival. Hominines and the archaic human species added planned hunting and fishing to the already existing gathering, foraging, and scavenging techniques. The earliest evidence of planned hunting and butchery of large animals is traced to two sites.

1. Box grove in England dated to about 50,0000 years ago 

2. Schoningen in Germany dated to about 4,00,000 years ago. 

The Hominoids were quadrupeds. They walked on all four limbs, but, their forelimbs were flexible. The Hominids gradually adapted an upright posture. Hominines further adapted to bipedalism. The skeletal structure and the muscles also adjusted over a period of time to the upright posture and the bipedal motion, which freed the forelimbs.

The forelimbs developed precision grip and power grip and evolved into hands. This greatly helped in hunting and defending from predators as hands could be used to make tools and also use them. Walking on two legs also provided a greater long-distance vision and helped them to cover long distances without spending much energy.

Place of Origin of the Humans.

The place of origin of the humans or modem man is a much-debated issue. There are two divergent theories.

1. The Replacement or African origin Theory 

2. The Regional Continuity theory.

Replacement or African origin theory: According to this theory, the modern human species evolved from the archaic species in Africa. Africa with its nurturing tropical climate consisting of strong wet and dry seasons provided an optimum environment for the emergence of modern human species.

The Regional continuity theory: According to this theory the evolution of different human species from the earlier species occurred in all regions of the world. It occurred in Europe and Asia also, as it occurred in Africa.

The place of origin of the humans or modern man is a much-debated issue. There are two divergent theories. 

1. The Replacement or African origin Theory. 

2. The Regional Continuity theory.

The Replacement (or) African origin theory: According to this theory, modern human species evolved from the archaic species in Africa. Africa with its nurturing tropical climate consisting of strong wet and dry seasons provided an optimum environment for the emergence of the modern human species. Some of them migrated to different regions of the world at different points of time. They replaced the earlier human-like species in these regions.

The discovery of fossils of the early human species in Africa and the genetic and anatomical homogeneity among the modern humans in all parts of the world are evidence for this theory. The Regional continuity theory: According to this theory, the evolution of different human species from the earlier species occurred in all regions of the world. It occurred in Europe and Asia also as it occurred in Africa. The evolution proceeded at different rates in different regions. The dissimilarities among the human populations in different regions of the world, serve as evidence to this theory.

The study of human evolution is complicated. It involves many. disciplines including Anthropology, Primatology, Archaeology, Linguistics, Embryology, and Genetics. Discovery of human fossils, stone tools, and cave paintings serve as evidence for the study of evolution. Most of such fossils discovered are of extinct species.

They provide a link to the extant species. The fossils which provide evidence to the evolution of man are usually secured by chance. The process of recovery of the Fossils is a very painstaking and laborious task. Fossils are dated directly through chemical analysis or the sediments in which the fossils were buried are chemically analyzed for dating.

Many unanswered questions are being understood with the unearthing of new data and the development of science. The theory of Natural Selection proposed by Darwin, in his famous book, ‘The Origin of Species’ has greatly helped in the construction of the story of evolution.

His theory ‘Survival of fittest’ can be seen as evidence to the evolution and extinction of different species. The reconstruction of human history becomes very difficult as the source or evidence are very ancient, most of the times running into thousands of years.

The ancestral species of all the present Humans, Chimpanzees and Bonobos, Gorillas, Orang¬utans and Gibbons belong to the super family, Hominoidea. They are classified as Primates. They branched out of the Mammals about 36 million years ago. All the species belonging to the Hominoidea Super family are called Hominoids.

1. The Super family Hominoidea branched into Hominidae and Hylobatidae families. The species of the respective families are called Hominids and Hylobatids. The Hominids that is, Humans, Chimpanzees and Bonobos, Gorillas and Orang-utans, diverged away from the Hylobatids that is Gibbons.

2. The Hominidae family branched into Homininae and Ponginae subfamilies. The species of the respective subfamilies were called Hominines and Pongines. The Hominines that is, Humans, Chimpanzees and Bonobos and Gorillas diverged away from the Pongines that is the Orang-utans. 

3. The Homininae subfamily branched into Hominini and Gorillini tribes. Humans, Chimpanzees, and bonobos branched away from the Gorillas.

4. The Hominini tribe branched into Genus Homo and Genus Pan. That is, the ancestral human species branched away from the Chimpanzees and the Bonobos. As such, Chimpanzees and Bonobos are the closest relatives of the Humans. The evolution of genus Homo from the super family Hominoidea took about 30 million years. The emergence of genus Homo brought human-like creatures on the earth’s surface about 5.6 million years ago.

(b) Muslin Clothes

The Earth remained in the molten state for many million years and then began to cool. The volcanic activity got reduced considerably. The gradual cooling of the Earth made the outer side to become solid rock, which is called Earth’s Crust. Further cooling made the Earth’s crust to contract resulting in the formation of mountains and valleys. They are like folds and wrinkles appearing on an apple which is left to dry for a few days. The gases released by Volcanoes created the primordial atmosphere. 

The crust was still hot and water was in the form of steam. Further cooling condensed the steam to form clouds and then rains began to pour in torrents. This continuous downpour formed lakes, rivers, oceans, and seas. The rains and winds eroded the valleys and mountains. The erosion formed rocks to break and form tiny particles of sand and mud. The continuous erosion formed soil and the ocean floor.

(a) Egyptian

The term ‘human’ is derived from the Latin word ‘humanus’. 

Domestication of animals was followed by the commencement of agriculture. Humans who were food gatherers and hunters till then now became food growers or food producers. They were prepared to overcome the effects of climate changes like the ice age by adapting to the domestication of animals and agriculture.

Dogs are believed to be the first animals to be domesticated as they were continuously hanging around the hunters’ camps to pick up bones and scraps of meat. They developed a bond and dogs were domesticated. This was followed by sheep, goat, cow, cat, camel, and horse.

Dogs helped humans in hunting and guarding their shelters. The rearing of animals made humans, nomads. Commencement of agriculture is considered as a revolutionary change in the history of human evolution. This was an important aspect of the Neolithic age. Humans began to grow various crops like wheat, rice, millets, etc.

The practice of agriculture is not more than 13,000 years old. It made them lead a settled life. This resulted in the formation of human settlements termed villages and later towns. Villages and towns were the foundations of civilizations. 

Hominoids lived on trees. The trees provided them protection from the predators. The Hominoids were food gatherers. They procured food by gathering seeds, nuts, fruits, berries, tubers, etc. They were not meateaters. Hominids adapted to land-dwelling.

They began to use caves and extended stone boulders as shelters. These shelters on land provided them with considerable safety from the predators and from rain, wind and the sun. The Neanderthal man was the earliest cave dweller.

The shortage of food made them to scavenge for food. They covered long distances to forage or scavenge for naturally dead animals or leftovers of animals killed by predators. The above activities made them gradually develop an upright posture and consequently the bipedal motion.

This was required for survival. Hominines and the archaic human species added planned hunting and fishing to the already existing gathering, foraging and scavenging techniques. Planned hunting and making tools stimulated the growth in the brain size. The growth in brain size in turn helped them to plan and make better tools.

(d) all of these

‘Homo’ is a Latin word meaning ‘man’ (inclusive of woman). It’s adjective form is ‘humanus’.

Earth remained in the molten state for Millions of years.

The process of disruption of traditional Indian crafts and decline in national income has been referred to as de – industrialisation.