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Sati system, Female infanticide, Purdah system and Polygamy.

‘स्पीति में बारिश’ एक यात्रा-वृत्तांत है। लेखक ने जब तीस वर्ष पहले स्पीति में यात्रा की तो तब उन्होंने ‘स्पीति में बारिश’ यह यात्रा-वृत्तांत लिखा। स्पीति एक वीरान जगह है जो हिमाचल प्रदेश के मध्य में स्थित है। स्पीति में तीस साल पहले संचार के आधुनिक साधन भी नहीं थे। केवल वायरलेस के जरिए केवल केलंग व काजा के बीच संबंध रहता है।

स्पीति में केवल दो ऋतुएँ है। स्पीति में वर्षा जादा नहीं होती है। स्पीति में जादातर महिने सर्दी में जमा हुआ रहता है। स्पीति में जादातर ऊँचे पहाड़ों के कारण यहाँ पेड़-पौधे कम नजर आते है। यहाँ वर्षा की कमी के कारण सिर्फ एक ही फसल की जाती है। स्पीति में तीस वर्ष पहले रोजगार, कृषि, खाद्य-सामग्री व संचार के साधनों की कमी रही थी।

स्पीति का 30 वर्ष पहले ये हाल था, परंतु आज वहाँ कुछ परिवर्तन आया है। अब वहाँ संचार, यातायात व रोजगार के साधन कुछ विकसित हुए है, परंतु प्राकृतिक, दशाएँ वैसी ही हैं। अतः अधिक परिवर्तन की वहाँ गुंजाइश नहीं है।

(i)Pictorial images were produced by both British and Indians paintings, pencil drawings, posters, etc. They form an important record of the mutiny. British pictures in particular presented a variety of images that have provoked a range of different kinds of emotions and reactions. 

(ii)Some of the British pictorial images commemorate the British heroes who served the English. They repressed the rebels hence represented as heroes for example, ‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker, depicts the efforts of James Outrom, Henry Havelock and Colin Campbell in rescuing the besieged British garrison in Lucknow. This image was sketched in 1859. 

(iii)Newspapers reported incidents of violence against women and children such kinds of news when broke out, they led to demands for revenge and retribution. The British government were asked to protect the women and children. Artists have tried to express these feelings through their visual representations of trauma and suffering. 

(iv)Memories “In memoriam” painted by Joseph Noel Paton portrays helpless English women and children huddled in circle awaiting their fate at the hands of the rebels. Through it he ties to represent the rebels as violent. 

(v)Portrait of heroes of rebellion the dead and injured potrait in the picture indicate the sufferings which occurred during the siege. While the triumphant figures of heroes in the middle ground emphasised the fact that British rule had been reestablished. The rebellion has been surprised. 

(vi)Invincibility of British threatened by the rebellion, the British felt the need to demonstrate their invincibility. They frid to represent it through pictorial images for example, in one such image a female figure of justice with a sword in one hand a shield in the other is shown. Her posture is aggressive, her facial expression express her anger and a desire for revenge she is presented in a heroic image. 

(vii)In certain sketches and paintings women are depicted as heroic. They are represented as defending themselves against the rebels. Women’s struggle to save her honour and life is shown to have a deeper religious connotation. It is a battle to save the honour of Christianity and a book lying on the floor is said to symbolize the Bible. 

(viii)Source of deals with the report of a British officer from Oudh. The reports of the uprising of the people.

स्पीति जनजीवन : स्पीति हिमाचल प्रदेश के लाहुल स्पीति जिले की तहसील है। स्पीति एक विरान जगह है जहाँ पेड़-पौधे ना के बराबर है। स्पीति में पहाड़ों के श्रेणियों की ऊँचाई बाकी पहाड़ों से जादा है। स्पीति में सिर्फ दो ही ऋतुएँ हैं। सर्दी में सब कुछ जम जाता है। वर्षा नहीं होती। स्पीति में सिर्फ एक ही फसल की जाती है।

स्पीति में मुख्य फसलें हैं जौ, गेहूँ, मटर और सरसों। स्पीति में वर्षा बहुत ही कम होती है। स्पीति में रोजगार, कृषि, स्वाद्य-सामग्री व संचार के साधनों की कमी है। स्पीति में जीवन-निर्वाह भी कठिनता से होता है।

मैदानी भागों का जीवन : मैदानी भागों में पहाड़ों की संख्या कम होती है। मैदानी क्षेत्रों में जलवायु कठोर नहीं है। मैदानी क्षेत्रों में छह ऋतुएँ हैं। मैदानी क्षेत्रों में सर्दी कम होती है। मैदानों में रोजगार, कृषि, खाद्य सामग्री व संचार के साधनों की कमी नहीं है। व्यक्ति के पास सुख के साधनों की कमी नहीं है। मैदानी क्षेत्रों के लोगों का जीवन नियमित रूप से चलता रहता है।

जीवनयापन अपेक्षाकृत सरल है। उपर्युक्त तुलना से यह स्पष्ट होता है कि स्पीति के लोगों का जीवन मैदानी भागों के निवासियों की तुलना में बेहद कष्टदायक है। निश्चितरूप से मैदानी भागों में रहनेवाले लोगों का जीवन अधिक सुखद है, अच्छा है। अतः वही मेरी पसंद है।

स्पीति हिमाचल प्रदेश के लाहुल – स्पीति ज़िले की एक तहसील है। स्पीति की भौगोलिक स्थिति विचित्र है। इतिहास में स्पीति का वर्णन ऊँचे दरों और कठिन रास्तों के कारण कम मिलता है। अलंघ्य भूगोल यहाँ इतिहास का एक कारक है। संचार में कुछ ज्यादा सुधार न होने के कारण भी स्पीति का इतिहास में वर्णन नहीं मिलता है।

स्पीति में आवागमन के साधन भी नहीं है। स्पीति पूरी तरह से पर्वत श्रेणियों से घिरा हुआ है। साल में आठ-नौ महीने बर्फ रहती है तथा स्पीति क्षेत्र शेष संसार से कटा रहा है। स्पीति की आबादी बेहद कम है तथा जनसंचार के साधनों का अभाव है। स्पीति का जिक्र सिर्फ राज्यों के साथ जुड़े रहने पर ही आता है। यह क्षेत्र प्रायः स्वायत्त ही रहा है।

(1) Common Indian people did not like new education system without any discrimination. 

(2) Study of Bible was compulsory in missionary schools. 

(3) Christianity was common in Jails. 

(4) A law was passed which enabled converted Christian to inherit his ancestral property. 

(5) Under general service Enlistment act every new service undertook to serve anywhere in India. 

(6) The government decided to replace the old guns by the new rifles.

The rebels wanted to uproot the British rule. It was to be replaced by the rule of Indian, but what would be the nature of that governance is something the rebels were not sure of. They were definitely not fighting to establish a democratic government. The salient points of the vision of the rebels were as follows: 

1.Hindu-Muslim Unity: The rebels were not clear about the idea of Hindu-Muslim Unity. But they were definitely cherished the ideals of Hindu-Muslim unity. The religious sentiments of both the parties were respected so much so whenever a new territory fell to rebels , cow slanghter was banned. 

2.Preserving Indian Culture: Many believed that the company was pushing European culture and Christianity on the Indians. The rebels wanted to reverse this process. Some of the measures by the company to reform our society were also seen with the same vein. The vision of the different social groups: 

Zamindars: Many of them did not like the provision of auction of their estate by the company to recover losses. They considered themselves as rulers who could not be dispossessed of their estate. Hence, many of them wanted to give governance that suited their interest. Merchants: They were a mixed lot. They liked the rule of company as it maintained peace and law across vast areas of India. However, they also looked upon the company rule as partisan that promoted British trade interest at the cost of that of Indian’s, for the end of Company rule could translate into a favourable environment. Artisans: Most artisans were struggling to survive as they suffered due to policies of Company that pumped manufactured goods of England.

1. False

2. False

3. True

4. True

5. True

The rebellion was not abrupt and sporadic but to a great extent done with planning and care. This is brought out by the following points: 

1.The rebels decided to strike when the large part of the British army was in Burma. 

2.The time chosen for the rebellion was summer that is very hostile weather condition for the British. Summer was also the season when the entire countryside would be easy to navigate. 

3.To spread the message of rebellion, the rebels used symbols bread and lotus from village to village. 

4.Efforts were made to maintain Hindu-Moslem unity. Whenever an area would fail under rebel control, cow slaughter was banned.

A very important element of the revolt of 1857 was the unity shown by Hindus and Moslems in the struggle against the foreign rule. First the immediate cause of the rebellion was the use of cartridge greased with fat of cow and pig, angering Hindus and Moslems alike. After the rebels marched to Delhi, they declared the Mughal emperor Bahadurshah their all India leader. Thus, the Mughal emperor was the leader of Hindus and Muslems alike. 

Both Hindus and Muslims respected each others’ religious sentiments. Whenever a new area fell into the control of rebels, cow slaughter was made illegal to respect Hindu sentiments. Thus, Hindu-Muslim unity was the hallmark of the mutiny.

Baroda city is situated in Gujarat State. It is mainly famous for Maharaja Sayaji Rao University.

Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan was the first Muslim social reformer. He started Aligarh movement for bringing reforms in Islamic society and religion.

Rama Krishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda. This Institution opened many schools, colleges and libraries for social welfare.

सही विकल्प है (a) ऋतु संहार

Revolt of 1857 A.D. failed in Punjab due to two following reasons :

1. There was no capable leader of rebels.
2. Instead of giving help to rebels, the kings of Patiala, Nabha and Jind gave their support to the British.

Tantya Tope was the General of Nana Sahib. He was the leader of army of Nana Sahib in the revolt. When the British took control of Kanpur, he helped Rani Laxmi Bai.

People during the company rule felt that their religious sentiments are systemically hurt by the government. For them it was an attack on their religious freedom, and an insult. The religious causes for the Revolt are as follows: 

1.Immediate cause: The soldiers were given cartridge greased with cow and pig fat. This angered Moslems and Hindus alike. 

2.Reforms by Company: The Company introduced many religious and social reformers. Many Indians began to believe that it was an attempt on the part the government to deviate them from their own religion. Important of such reforms were prevention of sati system, widow remarriage, etc. 

3.Activities of Christian Missionaries: During company rule involved in spread of education. But local people looked upon them with suspicion. Thus, the people plunged in rebellion against the foreign rule. 

The British government published the Mount batten plan of partitioning India on June 3, 1947. The following were its main features.

1. India was to be partitioned into two parts – Union of India and Pakistan. 

2. The constitution passed by the constituent Assembly would not be implemented : in those regions where it was not acceptable. 

3. The determination of the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal would be done before the partition of India. The members of provincial assemblies of the Hindu majority regions of Punjab and Bengal and the members of provincial assemblies of Muslim majority regions would be called separately for conferences.

4. It would be decided by plebiscite in North – West frontiers province and Assam with whom the people wanted to be included. It would be decided by the voting with whom it will stay. 

5. The native princely states would have the right to decide with whom they wanted to be included.

Rani of Jhansi took part in the rising of 1857 because the British did not allow her to adopt a heir to the throne of Jhansi.

1. It created bitterness between the Hindus and the Muslims.
2. The Indians and the Europeans began to hate each other.

The act of 1919 was called the Montague Chelmsford Reforms. The main features of this were following :

1. Dyarchy was established in the provinecs. The provincial subjects were divided into two parts : Reserved subjects and transferred subjects. 

2. The governor’s Executive Council was not responsible to the State Legislative Assembly. But the Indian ministers were responsible to the Legistative Assembly. 

3. There was a division of power between the centre and provinces. The centre adminstered subjects such as defence, foreign policy, railways, communication census, public debt etc. The provinces adminstered subjects such as local self governance, health, medical services, police etc. 

4. Bicameral Legislature was established for the first time by this act. 

5. Separate electoral systems were extended on communal basis in the provincial Legistative Assemblies.

The following were the main causes of the failure of Indians in the Rising of 1857:

1. Beginning of the Revolt before time: The rebellion started before time because of the incidents at Behrampur, Barrakpur and Meerut. Unity among the revolutionaries received a setback and the English got sufficient time to suppress the revolt.

2. No common aim: The leaders participating in the struggle did not have any common goal. Some were fighting for the cause of religion, some for the safety of their states, while some others for the independence of the country. Therefore, the failure of revolution was certain.

3. Revolt Unorganised: The rebels had no able leader who could have kept them united. They were unorganised and indisciplined.

4. Untrained Soldiers: The rebels lacked trained soldiers. They had no modern weapons of war. Most of the people who participated in the rising were disbanded soldiers. They had little experience. The rising was bound to fail.

5. The rising did not spread in the whole country: This struggle remained restricted only to the northern India. People of South India did not take active part in it. Had the whole of India stood united against the British, the first war of Indian Independence would not have failed.

6. Control of the British over the means of transport: All the means of transport and communication like railways, post and telegraph etc. were in the hands of the British. They were in a position to send soldiers and weapons of war from one place to another place easily.

7. Harsh methods of the British to suppress the Revolt: The British dealt with revolutionaries very cruelly. Cities were looted and burnt. Many people were hanged. Public got frightened and did not take part in the rising.”

8. Economic difficulties: The rebels lacked money. They were not in a position to purchase good weapons. As a result, they failed in their mission.

Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.

Arya Samaj opposed polytheism, anthropomorphism, idol worship, animal sacrifice etc.

The First War of Independence was the most important event in the history of India. Its importance may be studied as under :

• It was the first attempt made by the Indians for the achievement of freedom. Indian soldiers and public collectively faced the enemy in this war of independence. Thus this struggle was a symbol of Indian national unity.
• People of all castes, creeds and religions made joint efforts to achieve freedom.
• The British were alarmed as a result of this revolt and they made several reforms in the administration to please the Indians.
• Several Indians sacrificed their lives in this struggle. The sacrifices of these persons always inspired the coming generations of India.

The Doctrine of Lapse was adopted by Lord Dalhousie. According to this doctrine, succession to protected state depended upon the will of the British. Lord Dalhousie decided that if the ruler of a dependent state had no male child, he could not adopt a son. It meant that if a native ruler died without leaving a son behind, the dependent state would pass into the hands of the British. On the grounds of Doctrine of Lapse, Dalhousie annexed seven dependent kingdoms into the British Empire which included Nagpur, Jhansi, Jaipur and Satara.

1. The rule of the East India Company came to an end. India came under the direct rule of the British Crown i.e. the King and the Parliament of Britain.
2. The British Government abandoned the policy of annexing Indian States.

Following were the military consequences of the revolt :

1. Consolidation of the Army: There were two types of soldiers before the revolt.

• The soldiers appointed by the Company and
• The soldiers appointed by the British government. After the revolt, the two armies were unified.

2. Increase in the number of European Soldiers: The number of European soldiers was increase^ and the number of Indian soldiers was decreased. But the Sikhs of Punjab and the Gorkhas of Nepal were given preference in the recruitment in the army.

3. Reorganisation of Indian Army: Artillery was put under the charge of the British soldiers. Indian soldiers were given weapons of low quality.

1. After the Sepoy mutiny of 1857, the British purchased raw material at cheap rates from the Indian markets and sent it to England.
2. They had a monopoly in the trade of Tea, Coffee, Tobacco, Cotton, etc.

Lord Macauley as the Chairman of Education Committee. He gave his verdict in favour of Western Education in 1835 A.D.

The main features of the act of 1935 were following: 

1. The diarchy system established in the provinces by the act of 1919 was abolished. 

2. Bi – cameral legislatures were established in provinces. The legislative council was the Upper house and legislative Assembly was the lower House. 

3. Provision was made for an ‘All India federation’ to be established. 

4. Diarchy was implemented at the centre. 

5. All subjects were divided into three lists—federal list, provincial list and concurrent list. 

6. A federal court was established. 

7. This act abolished India council established by Act of 1858. 

8. The system of communal electorates was further extended.

9. Provision was made for a central bank which was called the Reserve Bank of India. 

10.Burma was separated from India.

The ‘Ramakrishna Mission’ was established by Swami Vivekanand on 5th may, 1897 at Vallore.

Swami Vivekanand was born in 12th January 1863 at Calcutta.

Correct option is (b) Rabindra Nath Tagore

The main causes of the Revolt of 1857 were as follows :

1. Political Discontentment: There was a great resentment among the Indian masses on account of wrong political policies of the British. Lord Dalhousie annexed several Indian states on the basis of the Doctrine of Lapse. The rulers, the public and employees of these states turned against the British. The British ruined village self-government. They did not promote the Panchayat system. They also gave setback to village cottage industries. So the villagers too had feelings of hatred against the British.

2. Shortcomings in the Administration: Corruption was rampant in the British administration. Justice was very costly. Land tax system was very faulty and harsh. Actually, the main aim of the British was to collect more and more money. The British rule in India was, therefore, most unpopular.

3. Economic Exploitation: To promote industry in England, the British ruined Indian industries. Now, only the British made goods were sold here. Farmers too were greatly exploited by the Company. All high jobs were given to the British who got their salaries from Indian exchequer. So this exploitation of Indians increased the discontentment against the British rule.

4. Interference in the Religious Matters: The British took many steps to convert the Indians into Christianity. They also tried to change religious customs of the Indians. As a result, Indians belonging to all religions turned against the English.

5. Discontentment in the Army: There was discontentment among Indian soldiers. They were given very low salaries. The British soldiers misbehaved with them. In 1856, Indian soldiers were supplied greased cartridges for use. Soldiers were enraged and rose in revolt.

Lucknow, the capital of Avadh, was the centre of revolt. The rebels uprooted the British administration in this area. The British Commander-in-Chief Havlock marched on Lucknow with a large force and captured it on 31st March, 1858. After sometime, the large landlords of Avadh also lay down their arms. Thus the revolt was crushed in Avadh.

The Indians rose against the British on a large scale for the first time in 1857. Plan for the rising was ready. The message of rising was .sent to soldiers and the public by circulation of roses and chapatis. 31st May, 1857 was fixed for the revolt, but the incident of greased cartridges at Meerut led to the beginning of rising on 10th May.

An account of the events of this rising is as under :

1. Barrakpur: Greased cartridges were supplied to the soldiers stationed at Barrakpur, a cantonment in Bengal on 29th March, 1857 A.D. A soldier named Mangal Pandey refused to use them. In a fit of anger, he shot dead an English officer and asked his companions to pounce upon their British Officers. Mangal Pandey was sentenced to death. All the soldiers of Barrakpur Cantonment got enraged by this incident. Mangal Pandey was the first martyr of the revolt of 1857.

2. Meerut: The fire of revolt engulfed Meerut on 10th May, 1857. The Public and soldiers of Meerut came out in an open revolt against the British. The whole city echoed with slogans like “Maro Firangi Ko”. Soldiers broke open the gates of jails and released their companions. From there, they marched to Delhi.

3. Delhi: The English officers tried to check rebels at Delhi, but they failed to do so. The rebels declared Bahadur Shah as their king and Delhi came under their control within four days.

On 14th September, 1857 differences arose among the rebel soldiers at Delhi. British took advantage by this rift and re-established their control over Delhi. Terror was let loose on the citizens. Bahadur Shah was arrested and sent to Rangoon. Both of his sons were killed.

4. Kanpur: Nana Sahib declared himself as Peshwa at Kanpur. The British commander Havlock defeated Nana Sahib and the control of Kanpur came in the hands of the English. Tantya Tope tried to re-establish his control there but failed. In the mean time Nana Sahib took shelter in Nepal. Tantya Tope fled and went over to Rani of Jhansi.

5. Lucknow: Lucknow was the capital of Avadh. The English commander Havlock invaded Lucknow with a large army and established his control over the city on 31st March, 1858. After some time, “Talukedars” of Avadh also laid down their arms and as such the fire of revolt in Avadh was also extinguished.

6. Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi led the rising. The British commander attempted to suppress the revolt and occupy Jhansi but failed. Jhansi was again invaded in April, 1858 A.D. This time a few companions of Rani Lakshmi Bai deserted her and joined the British. They however, faced bravely the aggressors. The fort of Jhansi came under the control of the British. The Rani was killed in a battle with the British near Gwalior. In the Central India, Tantya Tope fought many battles with the English but was defeated. He was captured and hanged on April 18th, 1858.

7. Punjab: Yet many rulers of states of Punjab helped the Britishers in revolt, but still revolt occurred at many places against Britishers. Indian soldiers revolted at Ferozpur, Peshawar, Jalandhar and at some other places. But these revolts were suppressed by Britishers and many soldiers were killed.

In modern Harvana, local leaders of Rewari. Bhiwani, Balabhgarh, Hansi, etc. also revolted in 1857 A.D. but they were also suppressed by Britishers.

The rising of 1857 A.D. had some very important results which were as under :

1. Political results:

1. The rule of the company in India came to an end. India, now, came under the direct control of the British government in England.
2. The Governer-General of India was given the new title of Viceroy.
3. Mughal rule in India came to an end.
4. Indian kings were given permission to adopt son.
5. After 1857, British discontinued the policy of annexing Indian States into the British Empire.

2. Social results:

• On 1st of Nov. 1858, Queen Victoria of England proclaimed a Declaration in which it was said that the British government would not interfere in the religious matters of the Indians. Indians would be given jobs on merit and they would also be given higher posts.
• The British adopted the policy of divide and rule. They started favouring one particular religion and people of one class were made to fight with the people of other class so that their interests in India could be protected.

3. Military results:

• The number of Indian soldiers in the army was reduced and that of the Europeans increased.
• After the rising, artillery and ammunition departments were put under the control of British soldiers.
• Now the soldiers of different castes and different religions were kept into separate regiments so that they could not start revolt again against the Britishers.
• European soldiers were appointed on higher and important posts. Indian soldiers were given less important positions.
• Some type of system was made in which Indian soldiers and officers of every level should remain under the supervision of European army.
• Expenses of European army were put on Indian people.

4. Economic results: Many type of trade restrictions were imposed on Indians by British government. As a result, Indian trade suffered huge losses.

On 11 September 1893, in the parliament of World Religions, Vivekananda started his renowned speech with brother and sisters’. In his speech, he forwarded the importance of Indian culture and religion in front of the western world in a very influential way. He proved the intellectual, spritual and religious properity of India through his interpratation.

In context to this, ‘New York’ Herold a newspaper from America wrote “Vivekananda is the best individual present in the Chicago Parliament of religions. After listening to his speech it is lookes as if how stupid it is to send Christian propagators in a universally developed nation such as India.”

In 1857, Indians revolted against the British for the first time. They wanted to drive them away from their country. This revolt is considered as the ‘First War of Independence’. Political, military and economic causes of this revolt were as under :

I. Political Causes:

1. Annexationist Policy of Daihousie: Lord Daihousie wanted the expansion of the British empire in India. He. therefore, adopted the policy of annexation through the Doctrine of Lapse. According to this policy, a ruler who had no male heir was not allowed to adopt a son who might inherit his kingdom. He annexed Satara, Nagpur. Sambalpur, Jaitpur etc. to the British Empire. By following this policy, the British did not allow the widow queen of Jhansi to adopt a son. She, therefore, became a bitter enemy of the British.

2. Injustice with Nana Sahib: Nana Sahib was the adopted son of the last Maratha Peshwa Bajirao II. After the death of Bajirao, the British refused to pay annual pension to Nana Sahib. So, he turned against the British. On seeing injustice done to Rani of Jhansi and Nana Sahib, the Indians were annoyed and felt insulted. They began to make plans to end the British rule in India.

3. Insult of Bahadur Shah: In 1856 A.D, the Governor-General told the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah that he would be the last Emperor of India. After his death, his princes will have to vacate the Red Fort and stay in a rented house near Qutub Minar. This decision of the British annoyed Bcgam Zeenat Mahal, the queen of Bahadur Shah. She started hatching conspiracies to destroy the British rule in India. The Muslim population of the country could not bear this insult to the heir of Akbar and Aurangzeb.

4. Unjustified annexation of Avadh: Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Avadh was a faithful friend of the British. His ancestors had also helped the British several times. Even then, the British levelled the charge of maladministration against the Nawab of Avadh and annexed his kingdom to the British empire. They gave pension to Wajid Ali Shah and sent him to Calcutta (Kolkata). The people of Avadh got annoyed over it. There were 60,000 Avadh soldiers in the army of Bengal. They could not tolerate this injustice done to their king and decided to rise in revolt against the British.

II. Military Causes:

• Low Salaries: The salaries of Indian soldiers were very low. They were not given higher salaries even if they were qualified. Chances of their promotion were very less.
• Misbehaviour of the Europeans: Indian soldiers were considered to be inferior to European soldiers and English officers used to maltreat the Indian soldiers.
• The Enlistment Act of 1856: An Act was passed in 1856 by which, it was made obligatory for the soldiers to go overseas if ordered. As a result of it, dissatisfaction spread among the Indian soldiers.
• Annexation of Avadh: The British annexed Avadh on the basis of maladministration. The Nawab was deposed and his army was disbanded.
• The issue of Greased Cartridges: In 1856 A.D, Indian soldiers were given greased cartridges which were to be bitten with one’s teeth before they could be fired. This enraged the Hindu and Muslim soldiers in the British army. Indian soldiers were angry over it. The first freedom struggle of 1857 A.D. was the result of this discontentment amongst the Indian soldiers.

III. Economic Causes:

• The British started sending raw materials from India to factories in England. Finished products of England were sold in India. This policy affected Indian industry very badly and many artisans became jobless.
• The British increased the land tax step by step. This tax was collected by very harsh methods. The farmers were dissatisfied due to this reason.
• Import duties on Indian raw materials in England were high whereas import duties in India on British-made goods were low. Indian trade was, therefore, suffering from heavy losses.
• The British confiscated the Jagirs of many ‘Jagirdars’ and increased taxes on other ‘Jagirs’. As a result, many landlords turned against the British.

(i) Along with the British merchants, Christian priests and religious teachers had started coming to India in large number after 1813 CE. The Christain missionaries criticised Hinduism and started to convert the Indians to Christianity. For the protection of religion and culture, the need of socio-religious movement now seemed to be necessary.

(ii) The spread of western culture created doubts in the minds of Indians. They tried to save India from the influence of western culture. The social reforms inspired Indians to retain their faith in Indian religion and culture and made efforts to eliminate the stereotyped prevailing in the contemporary society.

The names of two major countries visited by Swami Vivekanand were: 

1. France (Paris) 

2. America (California).

Swami Vivekanand the founder of Ramkrishna mission was born on 12th January, 1863 in Calcutta. His childhood name was Narendranath Dutt. His father’s name was Vishwanath Dutt his mother’s name was Bhubaneswari Devi. Swami Viveknand was a graduate from Calcutta University. Due to his religious and intellectual anxiety, Swami Vivekanand came into contact with Ramkrishna Paramhans.

Ramakrishna Paramhans was a priest of Dakshineshwar temple in Calcutta. Ramkrishna had deep faith in Hindu religion. He emphasized upon the spirit of unconditional reverence for attaining God. He believed in fundamental unity of all the religions and communities. Swami Vivekanand was influenced by the thoughts of Ramakrishna. Paramhans and became his disciple.

After the death of Ramakrishna in 1886 CE, Viveknand became a hermit. Participation in the parliament of religions : “Vivekanand travelled to various places in India and deeply studied various religious texts. With the assistance of the maharaja of khetri, Vivekanand visited Chicago city of America in september 1893 to participate in the parliament of religions. He started his renowned speech with ‘Brothers and sisters’.

In his speech, he forwarded the importance of Indian culture and religion in front of the western world in a very influential way. He proved the intellectual, spiritual and regilous prosperity of India through his interpretation. In context to this New York Herold (a newspaper) from America wrote, “Vivekananda is the best individual present in Chicago Parliament of Religions.

After listening to his speech, it looks as if how stupid it is to send Christian propagators in a universally developed nation such as India,” After this, Vivekanand travelled to America and England and propagated Hindu religion and culture over there. He established Vedanta Society in New York in 1896 CE.

Establishment of Ramakrishna Mission : Swami Vivekananda established the Ramakrishna Mission in Vellore on 5th may, 1897. He established the Ramakrishna Mission in the mame of his Guru Ramakrishna Paramhans. Its branches were openced in various parts of India and abroad. Swami Vivekananda expressed his thoughts through Ramakrishna mission. The teachings of Ramakrishna Misssion are mainly based on Vedanta philosophy.

Social Belifes and works of Vivekanand : Vivekanand opposed the narrow mindedness and social evils prevailing in society. He also opposed caste based discrimination and talked about equality. He believed that socio-religious traditions and beliefs should be accepted only when they seem to be suitable.

He advocated in favour of women resurgence. He wanted to eradicate poverty, ignorance and lack of knowledge. He said, “As long as crores of people remain hungry, ignorant and lack knowledge.” I regard each and every such individual who gains education at the cost of such people as a traitor. In order to make the thoughts of Vivekanand a success, the Ramakrishna Mission gave immense importance to social service and works of charity.

Due to humane outlook in its working, the Ramakrishna Mission became very famous. Ramakrishna mission established various schools, orphanages, hospitals etc. and performed social service through these. At the time of drought and flood, Ramakrishna Mission provided assistance and service and inspired the people for social service.

Religious beliefs: Swami Vivekanand had immense faith in Hindu religion and philosophy. He forwarded the originality and characteristics of Hindu religion and culture in front of the world. He said that the soul of mankind is a part of God. He believed that serving the poor and needy is also a form of worship to. Ramakrishna Mission has always regarded the service of mankind as the service to God. Its mission is ‘Nar Sewa, Narayan Sewa.’

National Outlook of Swami Vivekanand : Swami Vivekananda extended significant contribution in the development of the spirit of nationalism. Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission developed the spirit of self confidence and dignity among the Indians. The spirit also inspired the youth towards the Indian freedom struggle. He voiced for freedom, equality and independent thinking and provided a new direction to the youth.

He said, “Arise, awake and stop not, till the goal is reached.”He was concerned with the backwardness, decline and poverty of India. He was an opponent of western culture in a blind way. Vivekanand emphasized on spiritual development. Through spiritual development of mankind, he first wanted to transform mankind into humans. He regarded this to be the very basis of all around development.

Vivekanand performed commendable work by propagating Hindu religion and philosophy in the entire world. He forwarded the ancient glory of India in front of the world. He advocated for such education which could help in character formation. He wanted to build a powerful and energetic society. He said that one day, the courage and bravery of mankind would force it to renounce evil ways.

Vivekanand wrote to the Maharaja of khetri, “Every task has to under-go three stages-taunt, opposition and acceptance. He preached remain rigid and sacred and keep immense faith in God, in order to make all the negatives disappear.

Evaluation of Swami Vivekanand: Swami Vivekanand was a great philosopher. He not only propagated the importance of Hinduism in India but also in all the world. He tried to coordinate the cultures of East and West. In this regard Rabindranath Togore’s statement wrote, “If anybody wants to understand India, he should read Vivekanand.” According to S.N.

Natrajan, “Vivekanand devoted his life to the service of millions of victicms of India. He wanted to rebuild the nation.” Shri Ramdhari Singh Dinkar’s statement is that “Swami Vivekananda awakened this pride among the Indians by his words and deeds that we are the heirs of Ancient civilization. Our religious textes are the most advanced ones and history is the oldest and great.”

Our religion is such that satisfies the science test and despite the essence of all the religions of the world, there is more to them all with the propagation of Swami ji. Cutural nationality originated in India first, political nationality was born later and the father of this cultural nationality was Vivekanand.

Swami Vivekanand extended a significant contribution to the development of the spirit of nationalism. Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission developed the spirit of self-confidence and dignity among the Indians. This spirit also inspired the youth towards the Indian freedom struggle. He voiced for freedom, equality and independent thinking and provided a new direction to the youth.

He said “Arise, awake and stop not, till the goal is reached.” He was concerned with the backwardness, decline and poverty of India. He opposed western culture in a blind way. Vivekananda’ emphasized on spiritual development. Through spiritual development of mankind, he first wanted to tranform mankind into humans. He regarded this to be the very basis of all around development.

The Punjabis had mixed reactions to the revolt of 1857. The Indian soldiers in some cantonments of Punjab faced the British army bravely, but some rulers of Punjab states sided with the British. As a result, The revolt of 1857 in Punjab could not succeed.

A brief description of the role of the Punjabis in the revolt of 1857 is as under:

1. Revolt by Soldiers: The uprising started on 10th May 1857 at Meerut. The news about the revolt reached Lahore on May 12th, 1857. Indian soldiers (called sepoys) at Mian Mir cantonment (near Lahore) were disarmed as there was danger of the spread of revolt in Punjab. After this, the Indian soldiers in the cantonments of Peshawar, Naushehra, Multan, Ambala, Jalandhar, Rawalpindi, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, and Derajat were disarmed. Even then the soldiers in the eastern region revolted. The army created some disturbances at Jalandhar, Phillaur, Jhelum, and Thaneshwar. Hindustani and Punjabi soldiers revolted in other important cantonments also. Some soldiers killed their commanders.

2. Revolt by Common people: In view of the deteriorating condition of the British Government, the common people also revolted at several places. For example, people at Sialkot and Sirsa co-operated with the Indian soldiers. Besides, the Muslim tribals of Montgomery, Multan, Bahawalpur, and Fazilka also joined the revolt. Similarly, Punjabis rose in an open revolt at Karnal, Rohtak, and Rewari. Some jats of Karnal refused to pay the land tax to the British.

3. Revolt by Sardar Ahmed Khan Kharal: Ahmed Khan Kharal was the chief of a tribe. He refused to pay tax to the government and ro#e in revolt against it. Some tribals living on the banks of Ravi sided with him. He fought against the English at some other places also and killed the British soldiers and officers. Ultimately, he died while fighting the British near Pakpattan.

Correct option is (b) Mahajan schools

Before the advent of the British in India, Primary education was given in Mosques, Temples and Gurudwaras.

1. Schools of Mosques were known as Maqtab or schools of Temples and Gurudwaras were known as Pathshalas. All these were religious schools because these schools used to teach the religious books of their respective religions. Language was also of their own religion.
2. In Maqtab, Urdu, Persian and Arabian languages were used. In Gurudwaras Gurumukhi language and in Temples Hindi and Sanskrit languages were used to teach their respective students. Teachers who gave education were religious leaders.
3. Larger schools were there for higher education. These were generally different from religious places. Teachers of these schools were generally scholars.
4. The schools, in which Arabian and Persian were taught, were known as Madrassas. Students of all the religions were allowed to take education over here.
5. For Higher education of Hindi and Sanskrit, arrangement was there in larger schools like Benaras.
6. Special schools were also there in India for training of business or of any art. These were known as Mahajani Schools.

Sir Sayyed Ahmad Khan was conferred the title of ‘Sir’ in 1898 A.D. He died in the same year i.e. in 1898 A.D.

Correct option is (a) Maktaba

In nineteenth century, a socio – religious reform movement started under the leadership of Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was called as the founder of change and revolt in Bengal, as the founder of renaissance in India, as the promoter of reform movement, and the first leader of modern India. He believed in the fundamental principles and philosophy of Hinduism.

He wanted to eradicate the prejeudices from the contemporary society. He wished to adopt a scientific outlook human dignity, social equality etc., and aimed at social, cultural, political and religious development in India. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was born in a Brahmin landlord family in Radhanagar in Bengal. He made deep study of Hindusim, Islam, Christainity and their important texts.

He had knowledge of English, French, German. Latin, Hebrew and various other languages. He served the East India company for some time, but later he resigned. In order to spread his thoughts, he worte books named ‘Gift to Monothiesť and ‘Precepts of Jesus’. He also wrote ‘Tohfatul at Muhiddin’ in Persian language.

He published : Mirat – ul Akhbar” in Persian language, ‘Samvand Kaumudi’ in Bangala language and “Bangadoot” in Hindi Language. He established ‘Atmiya Samaj’ in 1815 CE in Calcutta. He founded Vedanta college in 1825 in Calcutta. He spread his thoughts by establishing ‘Brahma Sabha’ in 1828 CE in Calcutta.

Later it was known as ‘Brahma Samaj,” Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) got influenced by the thoughts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy and established, “Tatvabodhini Samaj’. After Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Devendranath tagore revived the Brahma Samaj in 1843 CE. Keshav Chandra Sen increased the popularity of Brahma Samaj.

Devendranath Tagore wished to take Brahma samaj ahead on the path as suggested by Raja Ram Mohan Roy. Keshav chandra sen gave permission to propagate the study of all the religions in Brahma Samaj. He started taking more interest in social reforms. Due to this, conflict started to increase between both of them. In 1867 CE, Devendranath Tagore removed Keshav Chandra sen from the post of ‘Acharya’.

‘Brahma samaj got split into two parts. Samaj of Devendra Nath Tagore came to be called as ‘Adi Brahma Samaj’ and Samaj of Keshav Chandra sen came to be called as ‘Bharat ka. Brahma Samaj”. 1… Keshav Chandra Sen strongly opposed child marriage, But he got his 13 years old daughter married to the old king of kuchvihar.

Due to this, some of his followers became unhappy with him and Keshav Sen’s Bharat ka Brahma Samaj segregated in 1878 CE. People who believed that they were progressive, seperated from ‘Bharat ka Brahma Samaj’ and established Sadharan Brahma Samaj. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahma Samaj worked singnificantly in soical, religious and educational sphere.

Social reforms of Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his Brahma Samaj opposed the evils prevalent in the contemporary Indian society. On the basis of religious texts, Raja Ram Mohan Roy tried to prove that various social evils were against the fundamental principles of Hinduism. He opposed caste system, untouchabilitys, Sati system polygamy, child marriage, purdah (veil) system etc.

He ran a movement to eradicate sati system. On the basis of fundamental Hindu religions texts, he tried to prove that sati system did not have social acceptance and it was never present in the form of a custom in Hindu society. He further told that even the human brain cannot support such system. Through newspapers and magazines, Raja Ram Mohan Roy gathered public verdict against sati system.

With the effort of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a law was formed during the time of Lord William Bentick and sati system was banned in 1829 CE. The courts were ordered that in such cases, the offenders should be tried for murder of a person and they should be punished accordingly. Initially, this law was implemented only in Bengal.

Later it was implemented in Bombay and Madras in 1830 CE. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahma Samaj opposed the social evils and supported widow remarriage for the well being of women. He talked about providing economic rights to women. He made efforts for women education. Brahma Samaj laid the foundation of ‘Balika Vishvavidyalaya (Girls’ University).

Religious Reforms done by Raja Ram Mohan Roy: 

Raja Ram Mohan Roy said that God is one. Through the Vedas, Upanishads etc., he tried to prove that the principle of one God is present in the fundamental Hindu religious texts. He opposed irrelevant communal rituals and prejudices. He believed that Vedanta philosophy is also based on factual evidences. Raja Ram Mohan Roy said that if a philosophy, tradition etc.

does not prove to be correct on the basis of facts, mankind should not refrain from renouncing it. He also criticized, the superstitions prevalent in Christianity. Raja Ram Mohan Roy believed in fundamental unity of all the world communities and religions. Brahma Samaj spread the beliefs of Raja Ram Mohan Roy regarding oneness of God and disbelief in idol worship.