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B.P. Mandal was born in 1918. From 1967 to 1970 and 1977 to 1979 he was the elected as the Member of Parliament from Bihar. He became famous in Bihar as a social leader. He also became the Chief Minister of Bihar in 1968 for one and a half month. He joined the Bharatiya Janta Party in 1977 and later passed away in 1982.

Politics in India since Independence It was V.D. Savarkar that brought the concept of ‘Hindutva’. He considered Hindutva as the face of India. The basic concept of Hindutva is considering India their paternal country and their holy land. The belief behind it is that only upon a strong cultural foundation can a nation be built. He believed that only the Hindu culture can give this foundation.

The National Front Government lead by V.P. Singh was supported by the left as well as the BJP in 1989.

Shah Commission

Indira Gandhi declared a 20 point Programme. Some of the programmes were land reform, land distribution, increasing agricultural wages, representation of workers in the management and abolition of forced or compulsory labour. In the beginning the urban and middle class people were happy because there were no protests and agitations, strikes and hartals. Discipline was good. The poor people thought welfare schemes would bring them prosperity. Thus different people had different views and different expectations about the Emergency.

Indira Gandhi wanted the loyalty of the bureaucracy to the government and to her without conditions.

Morarji Desai was the first Prime Minister belonging to a non Congress Party.

Jagjivan Ram

Civil Liberties Organization came as a result of the Emergency. Two Organizations named Civil Liberties Democratic Organization and People’s Organization for Democratic Rights were formed after the Emergency period.

Only Congress had the claim to be part of the freedom struggle. The Opposition Parties did not have an all India base or influence. They did not even have a strong slogan. This was the situation of the Grand Alliance. But by the time of the 1977 election, things had changed. Then they had a serious issue before them and also a strong leader. The Janata Party was bound by unity. But, after the election, there was a stiff competition for the prime minister ship. There was Morarji Desai who opposed Mrs. Gandhi since 1966. Then there was Charan Singh, the leader of Bhartiya Lok Dal.

There was also Jagjivan Ram, who was an experienced Minister in many Congress Ministries. Finally Morarji Desai became the PM. But that did not solve the problems in the Janata Party.Janata Party was just a group of parties that joined together because of Emergency. It had no sense of direction or a definite goal. It failed to bring about any fundamental change. In 18 months, it lost its majority.

Then Congress supported the Charan Singh Ministry. But very soon Congress withdrew its support. Charan Singh was in power only for 4 months. In the election of 1980, the Janata Party lost badly. Congress under Indira Gandhi came back to power with a big majority. Later Congress became a Party that sought the support of many other parties and interest groups arguing that it was a party with a Socialist leaning working for the welfare of the poor.

In 1974, the railway workers demanded bonus and better service conditions. But the government did not accede to their demands. To put pressure on the government, the railway workers, under George Fernandez, went on a nation-wide strike.

A large scale violence against muslims took place in Gujarat, provocation was an incident of Godhra Station. (2002)- True.

It was a case was about a 62 years old divorced women named Shah Bano, in the year 1985. She filed a case against her ex-husband to demand living allowance for her. The Supreme Court ruled in favour of her but the Congress government countered this decision of the court and accepted the Muslim ‘personal law’. Due to the appeal of some Muslim leaders, the government passed a Muslim Women Act in 1986.

• In 1989, Congress lost the election. With that election the ‘Congress System’ ended.
• Mandal issue in national politics: In the 1990s,the government decided to implement the job reservations recommended by the Mandal Commission. Reservations were also made for Other Backward Classes. This resulted in a move against the Mandal Commission throughout the country.
• The economic policy changed according to the change in the government. A new economic policy was implemented in the name of Structural Adjustment.
• In 1992, the Babri Masjid was demolished as a result of many things. It was an incident that threatened the unity and integration of the country. It happened because of the coming of BJP with its Hindutva agenda.
• The Murder of Rajiv Gandhi (1991): This brought changes in the leadership of Congress. In the next election, Congress won the maximum seats.

India has faced traditional military and non-traditional threats to its security that have emerged from within as well as outside its borders. Its security strategy has four broad components : 

1. To Strengthen its Military Capa¬bilities: Because: 

(a) India has been involved in a conflict with its neighbors, as Pakistan in 1947-48,1965,1971 and 1999 and China in 1962. 

(b) In the South Asian Region, India is surrounded by nuclear-armed countries. Hence, India’s decision to conduct nuclear test in 1990 was justified to safeguard national security. 

(c) India first tested nuclear device in 1974. 

2. To Strengthen International Norms and International Institutions: 

(a) India’s first Prime Minister J.L. Nehru supported Asian solidarity, disarmament, decolonization and the UN as a forum to settle down the international conflict. 

(b) India took initiatives to bring about a universal and non- discriminatory non-proliferation regime to enjoy same rights and obligations with respect to weapons of mass destruction. 

(c) It used non-alignment to help to carve out an area of place outside the blocs. 

(d) India signed Kyoto Protocol in 1997 to be a part of roadmap for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases to check global warming. 

3. To Meet Security Challenges within the Country: 

(a) Several militant groups from areas such as Nagaland, Mizoram, Punjab, Kashmir have sought to break away from India. 

(b) India makes efforts to preserve national unity by adopting a democratic political system by providing freedom of speech and expression along with the right to vote. 

4. To Develop its Economy: 

(a) India develops the way to lift the vast mass of citizens out of poverty, misery and huge economic inequalities. 

(b) A democratically elected government is supposed to combine economic growth with human development without any demarcation between the rich and the poor. 

1. ‘Freedom from want’ refers to economic equality i.e. equal opportunity and economic privileges. 

2. ‘Freedom from fear’ refers to protection from hunger, disease, natural disaster, military threats, genocide, and terrorism.

A peasant uprising took place in the Naxalbari area in West Bengal in 1967. It was under the leadership of the local cadres of the Communist Party of India (Marxist). The peasant movement spread to several states of India and came to be known as Naxalite movement. In 1969, the movement came under the Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist) under the leadership of Charu Majumdar. It used force to snatch land from the rich landowners and give it to the poor and the landless.

Military threat refers to military action from another country to endanger the core values of the country’s sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity. Military action often targets the men and women i.e. ordinary citizens.

(b) Charu Majumdar

Committed Bureaucracy means the government officials must be willing to carry out the principles and policies of the ruling party. They should do things as directed by the Party. It means the officials should be loyal not only to what is written in the Constitution but also to the Ruling Party. In countries like China we can see committed bureaucracy.

The 1977 election was certainly a referendum after the Emergency. Even before the Emergency, public opinion had turned against the Congress government. Emergency made the people turn against the Party. The people made a slogan asking the Opposition to save democracy. The Opposition Parties joined together and became the Janata Party. They rallied under the leadership of Jay Prakash Narayan .

The Janata Party made the 1977 election a referendum. Their propaganda focused on the violation of people’s fundamental rights, the arrest of thousands of people and censorship imposed on the media.Jay Prakash Narayan became the symbol of democracy. With the coming of the Janata Party, the opposition votes would not get scattered among different parties. Because of these reasons, Congress lost in the election.

A train bogey carrying kar sewaks from Ayodhya was burned in Godhra and about 57 people died in the fire. People suspected Muslims of setting fire to the bogey and large scale violence against Muslims began in many parts of Gujarat in February-March 2002. This violence continued for almost a whole month. Nearly 1,100 persons of whom were mostly Muslims were killed in this violence. The National Human Rights Commission criticised the Gujarat government’s role in failing to control violence, provide relief to the victims and prosecute the perpetrators of this violence. The Election Commission of India ordered the assembly elections to be held in Gujarat to be postponed.

1. The Anti-Muslim Riots took place at a station called Godhara in 2002. 

2. A fire took place on a bogey full of leorsevakos returning from Ayodhya. 

3. The hand of Muslims was suspected behind this fire. 

4. The widespread violence took place against Muslims in which nearly 1100, mostly Muslims were killed. 

5. Human Right commission criticised Gujarat government’s role in failing to control violence and provide relief to victims. 

6. Gujarat riots show that the government machinery also becomes susceptible to passion and alert us the danger involved in using religious sentiments for political purposes.

Approx. 1100 people were killed in the Gujarat riots.

a. 1990 

b. 1992 

c. 1984 

d. 1998

e. 2002 

f. 2004

The Anti- Muslim Riots took place at a station in Godhra in 2002. A fire broke out in a compartment, full of workers returning from Ayodhya. 57 people were killed in it. People suspected Muslims behind this incident and soon this resulted in riots. Nearly 1,100 people were killed, majority being Muslims. Human Rights commission criticised Gujarat government’s role in failing to control violence and provided relief to victims.

Human Security refers to the protecting people more than the protection of states which includes: 

1. To protect citizens from foreign attack. 

2. To secure people from violence. 

3. To protect from individual economic threats.

4. To protect human dignity also.

All states do not experience the same threats at a time, hence security is grouped into two as per requirements:

(a) Traditional conception

(b) Non-traditional conception

It is from military threats which lie in another country to endanger the core values of sovereignty, independence and territorial integration of a country.

1. In March 1977 elections, for the first time, Congress lost elections with winning 154 seats only. 

2. Janata Party and its allies won 330 seats out of 542 seats. 

3. Congress lost from the states of Bihar, U.P., Haryana, Delhi and Madhya Pradesh. 

4. Janata Party was formed of coalitions under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayana. 

5. Janata Party called this election as a referendum on an emergency. 

6. Opposition party realized not to divide the votes to enjoy the power under one umbrella. 

7. All these indicated a tough time for Congress ahead.

1. This cartoon appeared few days before the declaration of emergency to capture the sense of an impending political crisis. 

2. The then Congress president D.K. Barooah. 

3. A political crisis in 1977 made the party system in India look like a two-party system i.e. Congress and non¬Congress to end one-party dominance and emergence of non-Congress party Janata Party as an umbrella for others

The word Naxalite came from a peasant revolt in Naxalbari, a hilly region in Darjeeling in West Bengal. The leaders of this revolt were the local leaders of the CPI (M). Later it came to be known as the Naxalite Movement. In 1969, a new Party different from CPI (M) was formed and it was called CPI (ML). Charu Majumdar was its leader. The CPI (ML) resorted to Guerrilla tactics to press their claims.

The Naxalites forcefully took land from the rich people and gave Tito the poor peasants. They think that for achieving one’s goal one can use violence. Although strict actions were taken against the Naxalite Movement, it was not possible to suppress it completely. Recently in the Nandigram issue, the Naxalites became strong. In some areas Maoists are getting strong. This is an issue that should be carefully handled by the Central and State Governments. The growth of Naxalites might jeopardise the peaceful life of the country.

The Naxalites were the Marxist and Leninist agricultural workers of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and adjoining areas which organized massive agitation against economic injustice and inequality and demanded redistribution of land to cultivators. Role in Indian Politics:

1. Naxalite did not participate in the elections formally but these were actively associated with parties. 

2. Naxalites ensured a better representation of demands of deprived social sections in party politics. 

3. These movements retained associations or relations along with the political parties either as an individual or as an organization.

The news of the demolition of the Babri Masjid caused Hindu Muslim riots in many parts of the country. The Central Government dismissed the BJP government in UP and imposed Presidential rule in the other States where BJP was in power. A case was led against the Chief Minister of UP for violating the court order.

Bindeswari Prasad Mandal

In February and March 2002, there were anti Muslim riots in Gujarat. The immediate reason for this was the incident that took place at the Godhra Railway Station. A compartment in which Karsevaks were travelling was set on re. 57 people died. Many Hindus thought Muslims were behind this incident and therefore there as large scale violence against Muslims in Gujarat. For almost a month this violence continued. Some 1100 persons, mostly Muslims, were killed in the riots.

The “Traditional Notion of Security” covers both the external and internal threats of a country’s security. External threats consist of four components i.e. military threats, a threat of war, the balance of power, alliance building. Internal threats include maintenance of internal peace and order and recognize cooperative security to limit violence.

Arms control regulates the acquisition or development of weapons by adopting the following measures: 

1. The Anti Ballistic Missiles Treaty in 1992 stopped the US and Soviet Union from using ballistic missiles to limit large-scale production. 

2. Other arms control treaties were also signed i.e. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty and Nuclear non-proliferation treaty (NPT) to limit the weapons which may bring large-scale destruction. 

3. NPT regulated the acquisition of nuclear weapons in 1968. 

4. NPT did not abolish nuclear weapons rather it a limited number of countries that could have them.

1. The appearance of Indira Gandhi before the Commission but refused to answer any question. 

2. Shah Commission’s report about the emergency. 

3. (i) There were many excesses committed during the emergency. 

    (ii) Several restrictions were put on the press sometimes without legal sanction. 

    (iii) Many people were arrested under preventive detention law. 

  (iv) Even general manager of Delhi Power Supply Corporation received verbal orders from the officers of Lt. Governor of Delhi to cut electricity to all newspaper presses at 2 a.m. on 26 June 1975.

Four new sources of threats to security can be identified as follows: 

1. Terrorism is a war against democracy and a crime against humanity. It refers to political violence that targets civilians deliberately and discriminately to use it as a weapon against the national government. It has become a global phenomenon because even a superpower is not free from terrorist attacks. 

2. Human rights are those basic conditions which an individual is supposed to enjoy as a human being. These rights include political rights, freedom of speech and expression, economic rights, social and civil rights and rights of indigenous people to lead as an honorable and dignified life. 

3. Global poverty refers to low economic growth, low national income and low standard of living of developing or least developed countries. 

4. Health epidemics is a very serious threat to a country’s security because of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), HIV-AIDS, bird flu etc. diseases spread across countries through migration business, tourism and military operations.

Security is of two kinds internal and external. A country may face security threats from inside or outside the country. Traditionally we think threats from outside are the greater ones. It will affect the sovereignty of the nation. It will affect its freedom and border security. It will affect the lives of the people. Such a threat is external.

There are many ways for a government to face Such treats:

• Surrender
• Increase the defence expenditure and prevent others from attacking.
• Once the war starts, defend the country.

Some governments prefer the option of surrender when there is a war. But they will never declare it as a policy.

For security there are 4 traditional ways:

• Prevent the war this is the first factor.
• Defence control the war or end it.
• Balance of Power

This is a traditional way of ensuring security. Making alliances and counter-alliances, maintaining the country’s strength, intervening and not intervening, leaving a no man’s land between countries, dividing and ruling, etc. are of the traditional ways.

• Sign Treaties:

Nations often form joint alliances. This is done to prevent any external attack and defend in case of attacks. Almost all alliances are formed by signing written agreements. The member countries will have a clear understanding as to who is the common enemy. Nations are more concerned with external threats than internal ones. Internal security is also essential. Prior to the World War, the internal security of many powerful nations was much less because they did not give it much importance.Because of the Cold War, nations gave preference to external threats. It was in the colonies that there were more internal security problems. It was because of the people’s desire for freedom. The newly formed Asian and African countries had to face a lot of internal and external threats. Military attacks by neighbouring countries, army revolts, moves for secession etc. were common. Whenever a nation desires for freedom, such things are common there.

Traditional Security and Cooperation:

For traditional security, cooperation is very important. Everybody knows that attacks can be prevented by cooperation. Some things are recommended to ensure cooperation.

They are:

1. Armament and military supplies should be controlled or reduced:

There should be adequate reasons for nations to resort to wars. War is alright in self defence, to resist attacks or to save people from racial killings. Wars should be controlled or limited. People who are not engaged in wars should not be harmed or killed. Those who have surrendered must not be harmed. Only when all other doors are closed, nations should resort to war.

2. Disarmament:

There are 3 ways for cooperation:

disarmament, arms limitation and building confidence. Disarmament means not making and stockpiling arms and avoiding the use of biological, chemical and nuclear weapons.

3. Arms Limitation:

This involves controls for keeping arms like ballistic missiles and their development.

4. Building confidence:

A major step in building confidence is the exchange of ideas and information with enemy countries. Thus you tell your opponents that you are not going to make a surprise attack on them. The advantage is that no country will start the attack on some misunderstanding.

1 – b

2 – c

3 – d

4 – a

The European Union was established in 1992.

(i)-(b) 

(ii)-(d) 

(iii)-(c) 

(iv)-(a)

Creation and sustenance of alliances belong to traditional notion of security.

2. terrorism

4. Global poverty

Earlier security thread would mean thread to the boundaries, to the nation or to the government. There fore their security was paramount. Now not only countries, but also individuals, societies and mankind itself are facing various threats.

Non traditional security has two factors:

• Human Security
• Global security

Human Security:

The security of people is more important than the security of countries. Now a days the citizens are not safe in any country. In the last 100 years, governments have killed more of their own people than the enemies of the country have killed.

To face human security and to ensure security, there are two views.

• Narrow concept
• Broad concept

The narrow concept gives importance to attacks on individuals. According to the opinion of the ex UN Secretary General Ko Annan, narrow concept is the security of individuals and communities from internal violence. In Broad concept, the concept of security is extended to protection from poverty, disease and natural disasters. It is so because the people who die from terrorism, ethnic cleansing and war will be less than those who die from poverty, disease and natural disasters. The human security policy aims at protecting people’ from disasters and attacks.

Global Security:

This concept came because of the coming of global warming, terrorism, AIDS, bird fever, etc. No country can solve these problems alone. It is in these circumstances the necessity and importance of global security was recognized. Recently there was the outbreak of swine u which once again pointed to the importance of global security.

Security implies freedom from threats.

Security threats are of a different kind now. They can be categorized as follows:

Terrorism:

Political attacks make the life of ordinary citizens difficult. The terrorists want the political circumstances to change. They try to bring about changes by threats or armed attacks. By unleashing violence, they make the people restless. They try to make the dislike and discontentment of the people their weapon against governments. Their activities include hijacking planes and bombing trains and markets and other places where people assemble. They attacked arid destroyed the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 September 2001. The government and the people are more cautious now against terrorists.

Human Rights:

We see that throughout the world there are human right violations. There is no unified thinking in any country about how to protect human rights. Recent incidents of human right violations are the annexation of Kuwait by Iraq, the ethnic cleansing in Ruanda and the mass killings of the people of Eastern Timor by the Indonesian army. All these prompted world leaders to have a talk. The talk was about whether the UN should interfere in such matters. The matter is still unresolved.

Global Poverty:

This is another factor of security threat. It is believed that the population in the underdeveloped countries will triple in 50 years. In countries where the population is low, the per capital income will be high. Therefore the economically advanced countries will prosper further whereas the poor countries will grow poorer. The gap between countries of the North and South will increase. People from the South countries immigrate to the North countries for better life and earning. This also creates a threat for the security of mankind.

Contagious Diseases:

Contagious diseases are another threat to mankind. AIDS, bird u, SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) etc. are dangerous contagious diseases. These spread quickly from one country to another. A country’s success or failure in controlling these diseases affects other countries also. Recently swine-u spread all over the world. It is when a problem becomes a threat to a nation and its people that it becomes an international security threat.

People often have to leave their homes because of some troubles or some development projects. But they continue living within the boundaries of the country. Such people are called internally displaced people. An example of these people is the Kashmiri Pundits who had to leave their homes following the Kashmir uprisings, in the early part of the 1990s.